


■ f^- ' '■' <^- .■- 




Qass. 
Book- 






COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

HARRISBURG 



History and Social Science 

English 

General Science 

Mathematics 

Foreign Languages 

High School Administration 

Libraries 



REPRINT FROM PROCEEDINGS OF EDUCATIONAL 
CONGRESS, NOVEMBER. 1919. 



HARRISBURG, PA.: 
J. L. L. KUHN, PRINTER TO THE COMMONWEALTH 

1920. 



COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA, 
V DEPARTMEN T OF PUBLIC INSTRUC TION. 
HARRISBURG 



^ 



Piistory and Social Science 

English 

General Science 

Mathematics 

Foreign Languages 

High School Administration 

Libraries 



REPRINT 
From the Proceedings of the 
EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS 
NOVEMBER, 1919 ^ 






m 



n: •f •. 

OCT 22 1920 



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in 



HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE 



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SOCIAL SCIENCES IX THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



1. cniCS EOK THE GHADES 



J. LYNN BARNARD, Philadelphia School of Pedagogy 



Of late we are coming to vision a twelve year program of training 
in citizenship extending from the- first year of the elementary school 
to the last 3'ear of the secondary school. In fact, that is the only 
justification of the public school system, that it shall train for active, 
intelligent citizenship ; and all its work must he shaped to that end. 
Jn all the varied curriculum of the modern school, History and Civics 
stand out preeminently as tlie studies which most directly train for 
citizenship. 

This training must be based on certain fundamental principles. 
It must be continuous and cumulative ; it must i)roceed from the near, 
the simple, the concrete to the relatively remote, complex, abstract; 
it must jn'ogress from fiuu-lion to piiructure, from actis'ities to organ- 
ization ; it must relate civics to past events — history made, and to 
present events — history in the making; and, finally, it must relate 
civics to conduct — hence a curriculum botli of study and of activities. 

The civics program for the elementary and junior high schools 
may be considered und<'r tlie following classification: civic virtues. 
Grades I — lY; community .cooperation. Grades III — V; industrial 
cooperation, Grade VI ; community organization, Grades Y^II — VIII ; 
industrial organization. Grade IX. On this foundation the senior 
high school may build a superstructure of socialized history, European 
and American, and of social problems, a study of which shall lead 
into the elements of sociology, economics, and political science. 

Now as to the basic work of the first six years, beginning with the 
civic virtues. v 

During these early years the child's predominant psychological 
stage is that of imagination ; his environment is a limited one, center- 
ing in his home and his school ; and the work in civics must be planned 
accordingly. Such civic virtues as obedience, cleanliness, orderliness, 



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«ourtesy^ helpfulness, punctuality, truthfulness, fair play, thorough- 
aess, honesty, courage, self-control, perseverance, thrift may be in- 
culcated in the impressionable young citizens. The progression in 
these virtues will at once be observed, namely from the objective to 
the subjective, from the simpler to the more mature. 

Kesults will best be secured by the use of stories, poems, memory 
gems, songs, pi<;tures, games, and dramatization of stories told by the 
teacher. The object is that of habit formation, that shall both culti- 
vate these civic virtues in the young citizen and at the same time 
afford a basis of social experience for the interpretation of new social 
situations as they shall arise. 

Coming now to community cooperation, we discover that the child 
is emerging from that delightful age of the imagination — so unreal 
to his elders, so real to him — and passing into the age of idealization, 
of hero-worship, where his chief interest is in adventure, in heroic 
deeds, in people who are doing things. Moreover, his environment 
is a rapidly widening one, reaching out to the community round about 
him. And our civic teaching must follow the child. 

The baker, the milkman, the butcher, the shoemaker, the dress- 
maker, the carpenter, the plumber, the painter, the doctor, the nurse, 
— all these people who help to make up the community, and without 
whose constant aid he could not even preserve life or health, must 
be made known to him as verj^ living and very interesting realities. 

Then will come policeman, fireman, street-sweeper, ash and garb- 
age collector, and other community employees who render direct 
and immediate service to the child and his family. And this will be 
followed by those who supply more indirect and remote service, such 
as water, gas, electricity, and the telephone, parks, playgrounds, etc. 

Several objects must be kept in view in this part of the work: 
first, the service rendered by each member of the community, and the 
dependence of the young citizen and his family on that service; second, 
the interdependence of each member of the community on the others, 
and the cooperation that makes such interdependence possible ; third, 
the adult embodiment of those very civic virtues that have already 
been impressed upon the children. The third aim is, after all, only 
a continuation of the training in habit formation begun, as we have 
seen, in the earlier grades. However, the effect is now indirect, 
personified in those of mature years who are really of use in the 
world, instead of- direct and ^personal, as heretofore. 

As to the method to be employed: discussion, trips, class reports, 
and stories of men and women who have made good take the place 
of the earlier songs, games, fairy tales, and dramatization. Of course, 
the final object of these later years must be kept steadily in mind — 
that of arousing interest in our community servants, of bringing the 



child to appreciate the character and importance of their work, and 
of leading him to want to do what he can to help. The ''curriculum 
of activities" mentioned above, must not be forgotten. 

By the time the sixth grade is reached the environment of the child, 
in many homes, has come to be distinctly economic. The law says, 
in Pennsylvania, that the young citizens may leave school — except 
for the few hours a week in a continuation school, where there is 
one — at the close of their sixth school year, provided they are four- 
teen years of age and can meet a few other conditions. And away 
they go, these youthful burden-bearers, by the thousands every year, 
a mournful procession to those who realize its significance. 

Before these children leave their daily school life, perhaps all 
regular schooling, they must learn that there is such a thing as good 
citizenship in industry. They must be given some notion of the in- 
dustrial life around them and of how they can best fit themselves 
into some occupation where they can render real service to their 
employer and to the community at large. So we may call this sixth 
year the ''vocational civics" year. This will be time well spent, not 
only for those who are soon to leave, but for those who are to remain. 

Through write-ups of local industries and occupations, which each 
community will need to prepare for itself, and through trips and 
class discussions, the objects of this phase of civic training may be 
realized. These aims are, in brief, to give vocational guidance, to 
show community cooperation in industry, and to train the young 
citizen in the ethics of business — what the employer owes him and 
what he owes the employer. And ethics in business is discovered 
to be nothing more, after all, than the exemplification of those very 
civic virtues he has been kept in touch with all along the way. Once 
again he learns the value of right habit formation, which alone makes 
for real success in life and which is in itself the essence of good 
citizenship. 

The young people have now arrived at the early adolescent stage, 
which marks the beginning of the junior high school years. They 
are gradually emerging from the stage of hero worship, of interest 
in people who are doing things, and are beginning to look for the 
causes that lie back of individual activit}'. We sometimes call it 
the age of integration, of unification. Tlie boys and girls have now 
reached the time when they are interested in sequence, in cause and 
effect ; hence they are ready to think about the organization that 
gives unit}^ and power to wliat lias seemed before to be only^ indi- 
vidual initiative. 



Moreover, this is tlie age when the "gang spirit" begins to manifest 
itself, and this lends additional meaning to a study of community 
organization. The need is now to shape and mould this ''gang spirit" 
so that it shall develop into the cooperative spirit of true citizenship. 

Once more our method of civic teaching changes, to keep pace with 
our young citizens. And now for a year or two, preferably two, the 
so-called ''elements of civic welfare" may well be studied. There are: 
health, protection of life and property, education, recreation, civic 
beauty, communication, transportation, wealth. 80 much for the 
normal individuals. But it is equally an element of civic welfare 
that the subnormal, the physically and mentally handicapped, shall 
be cared for by the community. And it is just as important that 
the moral weaklings, the anti-social, shall receive the sort of treat- 
ment they require. These last two classes may be discussed under 
separate headings such as "charities" and ''correction," or under one 
licading such as "care of the unfortunate." In both, the keynote must 
be prevention. 

In the earlier topics the executive or administrative side of gov- 
ernment has been constantly under discussion, until the various de- 
partments, bureaus, and commissions are fairly well understood. The 
last two topics have been equally dependent on the judiciary. But, 
though frequent reference has been made to laws and ordinances, the 
method and scope of law-making have not been considered. These 
are not beyond the pupils' intelligence and interest, now that they 
have learned what laws are for and how they are enforced. 

Of much importance, if time permits, is a very elementary discus- 
sion of taxation, — of where the money comes from to run all these 
branches of our local, state, and national government, how the money 
is appropriated, and how the expenditures are checked up at fairly 
regular intervals. 

It would seem as if the list of topics was now complete. But there 
still remains a l>rief study of political parties, of how they are organ- 
ized and how they work. This will include a look at both party organ- 
ization and election machinery. We must not forget that without 
their steady cooperation our ''check and balance" system of govern- 
ment — with its division of ^jowers between state and nation, and its 
separation of powers between legislative, executive, and judicial — 
would be absolutely unworkable. This can be made plain, in simple 
terms, to the eighth grade pupil who has had consecutive training in 
civics for a number of years. 

Special attention may need to be given by the teacher of civics to 
xVmericanization in its larger aspects, especially in the industrial 
centers. This must include not only the machinery of naturalization 
but also the years of preparatory training in English and civics for 
our foreign population. While this is primarily for adults, the lesson 



9 

of "prt'ijareuuesa" may be transmitted from tlie school into the homes. 
We cau no longer ailoid to wait complacently for the "second genera- 
tion/' trained in our schools, to take the place of the "tirst genera- 
tion." The children must carry this message home to their parents, 
and their parents must heed the warning.- 

Four steps will naturally be taken in a study of the "elements of 
welfare." First is the "apiuoach," which opens up the topic and 
siiows how important and liow interesting it is to each boy and girl. 
Then come the "means," through which the result is to be attained ; 
for example, health may be secured through pure air, pure water, 
pure food, freedom from contagious disease, etc. This, in turn, leads 
u> a study of the "agencies" — local, state, and national, public and 
private — bj' means of which these civic needs are supplied; for ex- 
ample, departments or bureaus of health, housing, building inspec- 
tion, and the like. Following this, or running through all that has 
preceded, comes the practical lesson of }>ersonal responsibility to 
co()])erate with civic agencies, which must be learned by each young 
citizen of the class. 

^ While this cooperation is often individual, it is usually more 
etileotive when it is collective, groupal; and, fortunately, the "gang 
s})irit" once more comes to the rescue and reinforces the suggestions 
or hints of the teacher. This organized cooperation can be worked 
out through Thrift Clubs, Junior Civic Leagues, Junior Bed Cross, 
Health Crusaders, Junior Police, or in any other fashion that fits 
the work to be accomplished by the class. 

This citizen responsibility takes one of three forms: first, to do 
the thing one's self; second, to summon the agency, public or private, 
that has been established to look after the nuitter and then leave it 
to that agency; third, to work continuously with that agency. Kx 
jMjiples of each will occur 1o the I'oader. 

Under the guidance of a teacher with the civic viewpoint the acti- 
vities that will be undertaken by a junior high school class, in an 
organized way, will be both practical and of the highest educational 
value to the young people, lliese 3'oung citizens will "learn by doing" 
lliat the new civics is both a curriculum of study and a curriculum of 
activities. 

The last year of the junior high school, or the first year of th^ 
usual four-year high school, has now been reached. No matter which 
type of organization prevails, the school mortality of this particular 
year is high. As in the sixth school year so in the ninth, there is 
a very considerable exodus. So once again it would seem that the 
civics teaching should be vocational in character. The old-time anci- 
ent history, with its discouraging array of Greek and Latin names, 
is being merged in a later survey of the great epochs and institutions 
of European history ; and its place is being taken by a year of careful 



10 

thought about the elementary principles of economic life, such as the 
production and consumption of wealth and of how one may best fit 
himself into the economic niche that nature has fitted him to 
occupy. Of course, the way in which the young worker will be aided 
by governmental and private agencies is carefully noted, and the 
service he may expect to render to society in any particular occupation 
or industry. 

While the foregoing program of civics instruction is planned prim- 
arily for city and town schools, yet it is equally applicable to rural 
schools provided it is modified in details. City and country alike 
have need to cultivate both the civic virtues and the spirit of com- 
munity cooperation. Both city and country must secure the elements 
of civic welfare for the citizens, though the agencies in the former 
may be more complex than in the latter. In both alike the young 
citizens need special training in the civic aspects of the vocational 
life which they will soon enter; they must learn the full meaning of 
the term "good citizenship in industry." And, finally, the young 
person must learn that good citizenship is a growth, an achievement, 
the result of years of right thinking and right acting, and not a 
happy accident. 



2. CIVICS FOR THE UPPER GRADES AND THE .JlL\!OR HIGH 

SCHOOL 



ARTHUR W. DUNN, U. S. Bureau of Education, Wai^hington, D. CI 



A thoroughgoing study of community civics is recommended for the 
seventh and eighth grades. It is essential, however, to recognize the 
essential purposes and characteristics of community x^ivics, and to 
organize its study around clearly defined, vitalizing ideas. 

I. It must be civics. 

1. By the derivation of the word, it is that which pertains to 
citizenship. The controlling purpose Is to train for and in citizen- 
ship, and not merely to communicate any particular body of knowl- 
edge. Efficient citizenship requires the possession of a fund of well 
organized, accurate knowledge, and community civics must provide 
for this. But good citizenship does not necessarily follow from the 
mere transmission of knowledge. Much so-called community civics 
consists in the impartation of knowledge that does not function in 
good citizenship. 



13 

2. Civics has always implied a study of government, and should 
continue to do so. Community civics is not a substitute for the study 
of government, as some seem to imply, but a method by which to 
study it. Community civics involves the acquisition of much knowl- 
edge that is not governmental — economic and social — but it fails of 
its purpose if it does not include the governmental. Government is 
the community's organization for civic teamwork. Community civics 
in the grammar grades and junior high school must get this idea 
across. 

II. Community civics must be vitalized civics. 

This means that the instruction given shall not only relate to 
facts that are "vital," or important, in themselves, but that it shall 
be made to function in the life of the pupil. 

The basic test of the effectiveness of the civics instruction is the 
etfect it has upon the present attitude of mind of the pupil toicard 
his community relations and toicard all government (home, school^ 
local, state, and national) as a means of securing teamwork for 
common ends. A further analysis of this test is given in U. S. Bureau 
of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 28, pp. 57, 58. 

Some of the vitalizing elements in the method of community civics 
are: 

1. The demonstration by and for the pupil of the existence of com- 
mon interests and purposes (common to him and to all others in the 
community — home, school, neighborhood, city, state, or nation.) These 
common purposes or interests atford a basis within the pupil for the 
organization of the study of government. 

2. The demonstration of the necessity for organized teamwork grow- 
ing out of the existence of the common pur}>oses and our interde- 
pendence. 

3. The demonstration of government as a means of securing such 
organized teamwork. 

The organization of government has two phases with which the 
pupil must be made familiar: 

1. The organization for service, involving leadership. 

2. The organization for popular control. 

III. The significance of the word "community" in community civics 
is to be found in the above mentioned vitalizing elements ; for a com- 
munity is a group of people working together (teamwork) under 
cammon laios (organization and leadership) for common purposes. 
In the junior high school this conception should be applied to the 
study of our national community, and even of the world community, 
as well as to the study of the local community. 

IV. Some misapprehensions regarding community civics. 



12 

1. The local study idea. 

Community civics performed an important service in directing 
attention to the local community and its organization. 

The prinmry value of local study in community civics, however, is 
to secure a hasis of familiar experience by which the more unfamiliar 
and remote organization of the national community may be inter- 
preted to young citizens. 

In these days especially, community civics will fail of an important 
mission if it does not include the national community in its scope. 

Moreover, local study may be as dead as the old civil government 
ii' the vitalizing principles above mentioned are not injected into it. 

2. The sociological point of view from which community civics is 
approached, and the sociological material in it, have led some to 
consider the subject as merely an -'elementary sociology," from which 
the civic element, or at least the governmental element, is largely 
eliminated. 

3. The "pupil participation*' conception. 

Group activities, within and outside of the school, are an essential 
element in community civics. But they do not in themselves con- 
stitute community Civics. 

Their values: 

(1) The formation of civic habits. 

(2) The affording of a basis of experience by which to inter- 
pret new situations as they arise. 

Community civics will not only draw upon the pupils' present and 
past experience, but it will seek to broaden and enrich that experi- 
ence, 

(a) By creating conditions of school life typical of the larger life 
outside of school. 

(b) By increasing the pupils' contacts with, and participation in, 
the larger community activities. 

A civic habit is a customary mode of reaction to a civic situation. 
Habitual response depends upon the existence of recognized stimuli. 
If we are to cultivate civic habits in school, 

(a) The conditions under which the school activities take place 
must be as nearly identical as possible with conditions that prevail 
outside of school, and 

(b) The activities in which the pupils participate must be accom- 
panied by instruction that will aid the pupil to identify the elements 
in his present experience with the elements in typical situations of 
community and national life. 

This is +He function of community civics. 



13 



HlSTOili AND SOCIAL ►SCiElvCE iJS THE ELEME^sTARY 

SCHOOL 



1. A fc^TUDi' OE \ OCATiO:N\S AND OF ELExMENTAKY ECO- 
NOMICS AS A PAliT OF THE El^MENTAKY 
SCHOOL COUKSE 



.NLA-llY McAKULE, Inciii Junior High School, Pittsburgh 

The 011I3' basis for public support of education is service to the 
state in the development of an increasingly better citizenship. The 
lirst requisite of good citizenship is ability to be self-supporting, to 
earn a living, and it is therefore incumbent upon the schools to pro- 
vide education that will supply this requisite, A study of vocations 
and of elementary economics is a necessary part of such an education, 
for there must be developed a proper realization of the worker's best 
place in the world's work, and of his relation to the complicated social 
and economic structure in which he lives, and to which he bears a 
citizen's relation. 

Since so man}' boys and girls do not complete a high school course 
or proceed far into a high school course, it is necessary that such 
instruction be placed in the school curriculum where it will be of 
greatest benetit to the largest number of those able to beJbenefited 
by it. ' That makes it })art of the work for the early adolescent years, 
the curriculum for whicli should be organized on the secondary school 
basis, or as tiie Junior High School. 

The Junior High Schools of Pittsburgh first developed such a 
course to meet the needs of the boys enrolled in the courses arranged 
under the Smith-Huglies Act, and combined a consideration of the 
cooperative effort of people to satisfy individual and community 
wants, and of government as a means of cooperation, with a study 
of the vocations toward which the members of the class were working 
as the means by which they would take their places as economically 
independent members of the community, and a study of the elementary 
economic principles underlying industry both as concerns the indi- 
vidual vocations, and as concerns the other phases of industry related 
to them and to the welfare of the community as a whole. 

Such a course being valuable to vocational students it is capable 
of being developed into a course considering vocations other than in- 
industrial ones in order that it way serve two ends, a means of civic 
training in fundamental human relationships, and a means of educa- 
tional guidance so that the aims of education, individual and social 
may be better attained. 



14 



2. THE REPORl OF THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT— HOW IT 

HAS WORKED 



ARMAND J. GERSON, William Penri High School, Fhiladelphia. 



The Report oi" the Committee of Eight, issued by the American 
Historical Association about ten years ago, has been of great sig- 
nificance ever since in the modification of History courses through- 
out the country. As a reminder to those whose work has not been 
chiefly in the grades, it may be in order to introduce the subject 
of this talk with a brief summary of the Committee's report. Grades 
1, 2 and 3 deal with stories of primitive life, the celebration of holi- 
days, and hero tales; Grades 4 and 5 contain a biographical treat- 
ment of American history ; Grade 6 is devoted to the European ante- 
cedents of American history ; Grades 7 and 8 provide ior the formal 
study of American history. 

The Report of the Committee of Eight has made certain very 
definite permanent contributions. In the first place, it has given 
clear recognition to the value of history in all the grades. Experi- 
ence seems to have shown that even in Grade 1 it is of importance 
that the teacher shall regard history content as a separate problem 
with a distinctive aim of its own. Related to this contribution of 
the report is the general policy it advocates of assigning to each 
grade in the school a definite part of the general program. The work 
has been so distributed that the necessity for stopping now and again 
for reviews has been avoided. Finally, the report has been of great 
significance in the emphasis it has placed upon the necessity of pre- 
senting the European background of American history. 

The present course in History used in the Philadelphia schools has 
been modeled very directly upon the recommendations of the Com- 
mittee of Eight, The variations from these recommendations that 
are to l)e found in the Philadelphia grades are not of much signifi- 
cance. Many teachers in the Philadelphia system, while enthusiastic 
over the working out of their course in history, have come to recognize 
what they regard as certain points of weakness. It has been felt 
by some that there is an over-emijhasis on the biographical approach 
in Grades 4 and 5; that the European background as outlined is too 
remote and too separate from its application; that it is a mistake 
to make no more definite provision for American history in the case 
of those pupils who leave school at the end of Grade 6. 

The chief point of weakness in the Report of the Committee of 
Eight, however, is to be found in its failure to recognize that group- 
ing of grades which the development of the Junior High School has 



16 

necessitated. This failure can not be counted a criticism of the 
Keport, as the Junior High School was not in being at the time the 
Committee was working. Today, educators favor grouping the grades, 
I — 2 — 3 ; 4 — 5 — (j ; 7 — 8 — 9. The discrepancy here referred to is par 
ticularly evident in Grade G where the Committee obviously intended 
the work in European history as preliminary to the American history 
taken up in grades 7 and 8. Today we regard Grade 0, not as the 
first year in a group of grades, but as the culmination of a six-grade 
school organization. 

The following general suggestions for revision of the Report of the 
(Jommittee of Eight are put forward tentatively and as a basis for 
discussion : In the first place it is suggested that a course in civics 
should in every school system run parallel with the course in history 
through all the grades. The history recommendations of the Com- 
mittee for Grades 1, 2 and 3 seem to have justified themselves in the 
Philadelphia system, and no suggestion is here made for any change 
in this part of the work. It is suggested that in Grades 4, 5 and <> 
a simple narrative of American history be presented, making use 
of such biographical material and European background as will be 
directly helpful. Finally, it is suggested that in Grades 7, 8 and 9 
(the Junior High School), certain pressing problems of the present 
time be discussed from the point of view of their historic develop- 
ment. If we regard the chief purpose of history teaching to be the 
interpretation of present conditions, it follows that the historic ap- 
proach to the civic and social problems of the present day must 
receive recognition. Furthermore, the approach to such troublesome 
issues as the Labor Situation, the High Cost of Living, Immigration, 
Our Relations with Mexico, and the like, should be of such a nature 
as to, secure, not so much a final opinion on these matters, as a toler- 
ance of attitude and that patience with *'historical-mindedness'' tends 
to develop. 

Courses built upon the Report of the Committee of Eight were in 
many school systems radically different from the previous courses 
w^hich they superseded. It has required a definite campaign of edu- 
cation among the teachers of the grades to secure the kind of accept- 
ance and enthusiasm necessary to the success of these courses. I 
think it very important, therefore, that no further fundamental 
changes should be made hastily, and that when they are decided 
upon they shall ho inti'orluced gradually and with the approval of the 
teaching body. 



16 



PROPOSED KE\'ISI(>X OF COMMITTEE OF EU.ilT liEPOKT 



DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Lincoln School, Teachers College, New 

York City. 



It behooves me at the outset to correct a misimder.stauding. n\e 
committee which 1 represent had no thought of making a special 
onslaught upon the report of the Committee of Eight and I am at 
quite a loss to know just why I have been selected to deal with this 
particidar part of the program in history. Our committee's work is 
concerned only with this report as it represents a portion of the 
twelve 3'ears for which we are making recommendations. We have 
reached the point in our educational development where it is im- 
perative that we regard the entire twelve years as a single unit and 
plan our courses accordingly. This is tlie task to which we as a com- 
mittee have set our hands. The proposals, therefore, which we have 
to make for these first eight years are to be judged by what we 
propose for the next four. With the problem of the junior high 
school before us whatever we recommend for these three years will 
})redetermine to a certain extent whatever precedes and will go far 
towards shaping whatever is to follow. 

i)ur attitude as a committee as indicated by our preliminary report 
was very favorable at the outset towards the work of the Committee 
of Eight as the following extract indicates: 

"The Committee accepts t!ie report of the former Committee of 
ICight of the American Historical Association (The Study of History 
in the Elementary Schools. Xew York, Scribners, 1900), as the basis 
of the common-school history work, but it expects to study this report 
with a view to adjusting its recommendations to the new situation 
which will result from a recasting of the high-school work, and for 
the purpose of eMecting other improvements that may seem i)racti- 
cable." 

We regarded it as Doctor Gerson pointed out as a real landmark 
in the reorganization of our history work. It is now just ten years 
since it was given. to the public. WHien we came to examine it in 
the light of the principles which we had laid down for our com- 
mittee and when we began to get in touch with those who had tried 
it out, we came to the very same conclusions which Doctor Gerson 
laid before you. We recognized its permanent contribntion to be 
the inclusion of more European history in the work of the past 
six years, especially in the sixth year. We recognized also that it 
was built np to complete the work of the Committee of Seven which 
had confined its attention entirely to the high school. With the revi- 



17 

sion of this part of the course which our committee deemed neces- 
sary arose the necessity for a revision of the course as planned for 
these eight grades. 

The Junior High School was not anticipated when the Committee 
of Eight drew up its report; in fact the elunior High School move- 
ment has made its greatest progress within the past live or six years. 
Any course which is outlined for the first eight grades today must 
take into account the Junior High School. 

We have discovered, or recognized more clearly, that the secondary 
education o^ a child should begin, or really does begin, with the 
seventh year. He begins to take a different view of life and the world 
about him. This is the outstanding fact about the boy or girl which 
the school failed to recognize. He was essentially a dilierent propo- 
sition from what he had been in those early grades. The school must, 
therefore, reorganize its courses with this fact in mind. This is the 
j;eriod when v,e should try lo bring him into more direct contacts 
through our course of study with this lara;er world towards which 
his interests are directed. 

One of the fundamental principles u^Km .wiicn .mu- proposals for 
the twelve years are based must be recognized in this connection and 
berein is to be found one of the weaknesses of the report of the 
(.'onmiittee of Eight. Tliis principle is that every new step in history 
instruction must be a step forward and recognized by the student as 
such. The work planued for the seventh and eighth year by the 
Committee of Eight seemed to the child a repetition and often was 
a mere repetition of the \\ork of the fourth and fifth grades. This 
was felt to be dea'dening to any further work in history and any 
twelve year scheme. 

Looking at the Junior High School as the crux of the situation 
we felt that what was done here determined more largely what should 
precede and what should follow than any other part of the school 
course. We conceive in our twelve year plan of four great cycles. 
One of these is the making of the community and is begun and pos- 
sibly com])leted in the second grade. The second is the making of 
the United States which covers grades three to four inclusive. The 
third is a junior high school cycle in which we present the United 
States of America in her world setting. It is a two year survey of 
world history with our own, country given her proper place in the 
scheme. This is followed by ,the senior high school cycle in which 
attention is specially directed to the modern world. 

Let me elaborate in more detail the work planned for these cycles, 
which are mutually interdependent. Each one depends for its success 
upon the other. They represent the conception that history is not 
only a body of information — a certain amount of subject matter — but 
is essentially a method. I was very much interested to hear Dr. 

2 



18 

Dunn refer to Civics in this same way. It was "an attitude of mind," 
be said — "a reaction to civic responsibilities'' that was sought, lu 
the same way we conceive of the greatest values attaching to the 
study of history through the development of the right kind of method. 
ITie kind of objective towards which we are driving is expressed in 
some of the aims stated in our preliminary report. For example, we 
insist that 

"The supreme aim in teaching of history and social science 
is to give positive direction to the growth of those mental and 
moral qualities of children which, rightly developed, constitute 
t^he basis of the highest type of citizenship. 

"Historical training (a) frees the mind from the trammels, 
of time and place, substituting the idea of social development 
and change for the instinctive notion of a static social 
world, performing in this respect a service in education 
analogous to that performed by biology for organic nature 
or by geology for inorganic nature, (b) It tends to produce 
openmindedness, which mitigates native prejudice and per- 
mits truth to gain recognition, (c) It induces patient inquiry 
for the purpose of disclosing the facts of a given situation 
before passing judgment, (d) It gives some grasp upon the 
methods of investigation and the tests of accuracy, (e) It 
develops that form of judgment which deals with the shifting 
and conditional relations of men in --society, supplementing 
the scientific judgment which arises from the study of animate 
and inanimate nature and of mathematics, (f) It yields, or 
should yield, the high moral and ethical concepts of loyalty 
to principles and to institutions bj' revealing tlie cost at 
which the elements of civilization have been secured for us." 

The testing of this kind of a result is, indeed, difficult, but it is 
a much more valuable contribution to make to the equipment of our 
boys and girls than so much information. Our committee insists 
that there is a particular — a specific method — of presenting history 
which should run throughout the whole 12 years. The insistence 
upon it will tend towards the results we have indicated. It is diffi- 
cult to describe this method. Taking a leaf possibly from the 
report of the committee on Social Studies of the N. E. A. we insist 
that in this first cycle the teacher shall begin with those things 
nearest the child in her excusions into the past and before she is 
done shall establish again points of contact with the present. The 
past is to be presented as the past, taking the child back over past 
centuries by first placing him in contact with that past by means 
of things familiar to him or his present environment. 



19 

Children in the early grades are mature enough to recognize the 
element of change in the world, and it is through the appreciation 
of this fact that we are living in a changing world, that we look for 
the real values in the study of history. In this II grade, for 
example, the main points in the development of his community from 
Indian and pioneer days to the present can be presented in this 
\\ay. 

It is the same method which will characterize the work of the 
next four grades, Til — VI, in which we take as our theme or thesis, 
the making of tlie Ignited States, basing our work essentially on 
our first cycle and enlarging upon it by presenting such aspects of 
American history as how Europeans found our Continent and what 
they did with it, in the II grade; How Englishmen became Americans, 
in the IV Grade, taking the story from 1607 on through the Revolu- 
tion to 1783 ; and in the next year and a half (Grades V — VI A or B), 
How America came to be what it is today. 

At this point, taking into account those who complete their Edu- 
cation with this grade, in order that we may better realize our 
objective "that there shall be no gaps between the students' knowl- 
edge and the life he enters upon leaving school." and mindful that 
lie will soon be saddled with civic responsibilities — we devote one- 
half year to the study of our government: what it is, what it does 
for us, and what we can do for it. 

In the same way, following the same method, and emphasizing 
throughout the social and economic as well as the political factors 
involved, we present the survey designed for the Junior H. S. Our 
great problem here is to adjust our content to the time available. 
The dcMuands of (he Junior H. S. mean a large number of subjects 
with a new beginning to the boy or girl, a many sided vicAV of life, 
nnd it Follows that avo can only ask for three periods a, week. If 
the'-jo lire supervfsed study periods of 50 — 00 minutes, it means, 
with the time requirement for work outside the class room, that we 
ran ask for at best but from 200 to 240 minutes. This makes the 
se!e'-ti(m of material for this cycle a matter of considerable moment. 

Thei-e is another phase of the Junior H. S. course which is of 
interest. The oonimittee is providing an easy transition from the 
recommeiidations of the Committee of light to the new program. 
The work of the VI grade which as planned for them may teach 
the child mUo completes his school work at this point without any 
sj'ecial i)oints of contact with the present is now transferred to 
the ^'Ilth orade and carried to 1607. In the Vlllth grade the 
s;ame kind of work is carried on, thereby enlarging his horizon 
beyond the limits set by his own country's history, and avoiding 
that nnrrow provincialism so characteristic to many of our people 
who leave school at the end of the Vlllth vear. I shall not go into 



20 

detail as to the IXth year, as that is outside my province, beyond 
merely saying tJunt here again, anticipat!: j that the reorganization 
of our schools on a 6 3-3 or a 6-6 basis will hold boys and girls 
witliin the school for at least a year longer than before. We plan 
•)t this j)oint for a fours;*' wlitr']! '•<>iit:i!iis n(vlin]>s a larger element 
f civics. 
Finally, we would wish it nuderslood that we look upon onr pro- 
posals as rei)resenlir?g minimum essentials. We have selected from 
thfe field of history those portions that bear directly on this prob- 
lem. This W'C take it is essentially the ])roblem before tlie State of 
T*<^'^^^""'vnnia Avith refeiion.oe to the Pori.n1 ^^.-.-'ov. .^... 



HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

A REOEGANIZEJ) COURSE IN HISTORY AND SOCIAL 
SCIE^r^T^ 770TJ THE FOT^R YEAR HIOR SCHOOL 



JESfSIE C. EVANS, William Perm Hi(/h ."School, Philadelphia 



AIMH OF THE COURSE 

General Aim: To train citizens v^ho are not only intelligent mem- 
bers of modern socie'^v ^"'*' ■"'" •■^i'-'o -..--i- im ...vvo 1^:. ;-;,-:.K,!.nity. 

Subsidiary aims: 

(1) To enable the boys and girls to appreciate tlio jtresent 

social order. 

(2) To make Ihem uiiderstand that this social order i>; the 

result of development. 

(3) To give them ideals of service i inmunity. 

(4) To help them to f(.rm habits of co-operative citizenslii]). 

(5) To prepare them for a wise use of leisure time. 

1'Ki^L'iri.hiS U-\ WnlLil iili:. <:uLii^r. >-//fj( iJJ JU] BUILT 
Hi To make each unit of v?lr» h^ itsolf, not luoiely an iistrodiic- 
tion to another unir 

(2) To give the most innnediate values first, not last. 

(3) To build a logical sequence of units, each one more advanced 

than the last. 




21 

FLAX OF THE COURSE 

The ideal course for the social Mciences (including History) 
should cover four Aears of required work of four periods per week. 
In a'ldi'.ioii ihero should be offered at least two years of electives. 

Dth (rraile. ''Vocatioual" or ''Economic" Civics, one half j^ear and 
"Community" Civics, one half year or "Vocational' Civics one year, 
if "Community'' Civics is given in the 8tli '"■■-'■ 

lOtli Grade. lOuropean Ilisto^^^ 

11 til Grade. Advanced American Historv. 

12th Graile. Problems of Democracy. y 

(Current Topics. lnter])retation of current events should accom- 
pany every year of Ihe course. 

Electives. Contemporary Europcau History. History of the Brit- 
ish Empirie. Ancient TTistory. 

rniJ TEACHER 

AVhether or not Ave achieve the aims outlined above is entirely 
dependent upon the teacher. The first and last requisite 4n a course 
of training for citizenship is a teacher well grounded in history and 
the social sciences and having the spirit of the new kind of citizen- 
ship. Distributing the iiuits to anybod,y with a spare hour will 
defeat even' purpose. 



2. NINTH GRADE CIVICS 

EDWIN W. ADAiMS, Superintendent of SchooU, Radnor Township 

It is indeed gratiiyiiig to iiio:e of us who iiaxc cr^'ji active during 
tlie past ten years in the attempt to develop and put into the curricu- 
lum of the public schools a course of study in Civics, to find that it 
has at last been so fully recognized as to win a definite place on 
the program of so important an educational congress as the one 
we are attending. The admirable courses which have been presented 
by Mr. Dunn and Dr. Barnard covering the entire elementary 
school course and the first two years of the Junior High Rchool, 
deser\e th;it there should be no falling off in effectiveness of purpose 
and worthiness of aini iu the culminating yea: " ' Junior High 
School. 



22 

I desire to assure you at the outset that the course which 1 am 
presenting to you is by no means an "arm chair" course but that 
it has been worked out in the hot fire of actual class room experi- 
mentation. 

Presupposition, — There are certain presuppositions which I desire 
to set down before presenting to you the general plan of the course 
itself. Tn the first place, I am presupposing a school organization 
based upon the six-three-three plan and that the ninth grade is to 
be considered as the third year of the Junior High School. Again, 
T must take for granted, a course of study in the elementary grades 
and first two years of the Junior High School which is continuous 
and cumulative, such as that which has already been presented to 
you. I should desire also that we consider such a course as having 
made provision for vocational guidance in the last half of the sixth 
grade and for a study of the elements of community welfare in the 
seventh and eighth grades. I shall also insist that the course pre- 
supposes a strong and well equipped teacher who has a civic point 
of view and is capable of putting over to the pupils, the ideas and 
ideals involyed in the course. 

General Theme, — The genera] theme which has been selected for 
the work of the year may very properly be called Indiistrial Civics, 
or, if we care to be more specific. Industrial and Vocational Civics, 
with an economic and social background. I would venture to sug- 
gest, however, that while the title may seem to be high sounding, 
we are, nevertheless, dealing with the same problem which has con- 
cerned us in the past eight years, that is. Community Civics. 

Aims, — I shall attempt to list some of the aims which seem to mc 
to be most fundamental in determining both the nature of the cou- 
tent materia] of the course and also the method which is to 1»c 
used in its presentation. 

1. To develop in tlie mind of the child an appreciation of the 
industrial basis of the communities of which he is a part — local, 
state and national. 

2. To malce clear some of the fundamental economic and sociolo^ 
ical principles which underlie modern business and to make througli 
these for an appreciation of the social and economic problems of 
everv^ day life. 

•S. To develop in the mind of the pupil a proper pride in his local 
community, liis state and the nation, liecause of the service which 
eacli renders through its industrial organizations to the individual, 
his fellow>-. and in world relationship. 



23 

4. To direct the attention of the in\\nl toward tlie various occu- 
pations and pursuits which lie open to him. not only in the present 
with his limited capacity, but in the future when his personal talents 
may have been developed. 

5. To make evident to the pupil the necessity of continuing his 
education so that he may become a more intelligent worker, more 
contented, and, therefore, more happ,y in his vocation, a leader in 
thought and in action, in his community and a force for social 
righteousness, in brief, a better citizen. 

Content, — The material for the content of the course is to be 
found in the industrial and vocational activities: first, in the local 
community, then reaching out through gradually broadening circles 
into state and national communities. To be more specific, let me 
enumerate a few of the points which seem to me to be fundamental 
from the standpoint of content. 

I. Industries — The list of industries presented in the course would 
comprise those which have played a part in giving each of the com- 
munities its present position of importance as an industrial com- 
munity, and also those industries which are of leading importance 
in various sections of the local community, the state and the nation. 
The number of such industries as might be enumerated in a definite 
course of study would, of necessity, be very long. This multiplicity 
of topics, however, instead of complicating the work of the teacher 
should result in simplyfying it. Comparatively few of the indus- 
tries could possibly be treated in the course of the school year. 
From this list, the teacher would select, first, those, which, because 
of the immediateness of contact, would be the natural point of 
approach and, second, those which, while of vital importance to the 
eommtmity life, touched it rather indirectly. Then too, tlie value 
of the particular topic in the attaining of the aims of the course, 
would also aid in determining the selection. 

IT. Occupations — Any worth while study of an industry will, of 
necessity, make mention of many of the occupations v/hich are 
found within tlie industry. It is here that the direct application 
of the study of the industry will be made to the needs of the indi- 
vidual. It might be well, at this point, to indicate that not only 
the strictly industrial occupations are intended, but also commercial, 
professional and others. 

III. Economical Princi])]es Uuderlying Industrial Society — Much 
of the work suggested for this grade is a continued and more 
advanced presentation of the topic of Wealth which has been 
treated in a very simple manner in the eighth grade. Here we are 



24 - 

conceiiied witli the principles underlyiiis, — productiou, distribu- 
tion, and consumption of Wealth. Problems such as those would 
arise under a discusssion of the sources of Wealth — land, labor, an<l 
capital — should be presented gradually during the treatment of the 
several industries. The problems of transportation and communi- 
cation, of individual and group, co-operation and business organiza- 
tion, should be considered. A splendid opportunity of driving home 
lessons *of thrift will be found in the study of spending and saving. 

IV. Social Problems- It will be impossible to consider adequately 
any of the problems of modern industrial life without n constant 
reference to some of the more fundamental sociological priuci])les 
which are involved. A splendid opportunity is to be found here? 
for the correlation with the community civics work of the seventh 
and eighth grades. Such problems as the health of the worker, con- 
ditions of labor in various industries, hours of labor, personal 
security, old age pensions, should be treated as they arise out of the 
study of particular industries and occupations. 

V. Business EUiics— Here excellent opportunity is atlorded for 
stressing the ideas, of service, interdependence, and co-operation 
which have constituted the back bone of all civic instruction in the 
earlier grii4es. Specific topics, such as, getting along with our 
fellows, courtesy in business, keeping a piosition, atford opportunity 
for valuable instruction. The aim of all this instrtiction should be 
to emphasize trustworthinc ' . the essentials to 
insure success to workers. 

VI. Governmental Protection, Promotion, and Control — The coiij 
munity in its organized capacity as a government is vitally con- 
cerned in its industrial life. A*s each industr^' and occu])atiou is 
considered, points of contact will be discovered between citizens and 
their individual businesses and the community as a whole. No 
opportunity should be lost to show the vital interest of the entire 
group in the welfare of each member of the group. Governmental 
agencies which exist for the protection, promotion and control of 
health should be studied in the natural setting of their direct con- 
tact with the ever3'day life interest of the worker. This will carry 
us out from a consideration of local governmental organization 
through the state to the nation with its manifold interests and 
problems. 

Method, — Tn nttPiupting to present a course such as has been 
suggested, 'ler will be confronted with the difficulty grow- 

ing out of the a £j parent complexity of the task proposed. It must 
ever l)e kept in mind that the c"ourse is one in Community Civics. 
Thi' topics which are^ being considered are not to be treated as 



f;o(>gi'ai)hy, <•!• economics or sociology but as problems in citizehsiup. 
11 is uo( jntonded, by any moans, tbiit Die work be merely a stmly 
of particnlnv industries and occupatioEs. It is not a preparation 
for a voratiou. It is not tlie acqniring of information. It is intended 
as a <le(inite pj'eparation in citizenship. From the standpoint of gen- 
eral metliod, the principles which have guided us in our earlier 
work in Civics slionld still prevail. The method should be induct- 
ivi'. We must begin with that which is within the comprehension 
and life interest of the jnipil. We must recognize that the boy or 
giil of the r.inlh grade has had a real contact with life and that 
the composite knowledge of rhe group is no inconsiderable matter. 
Much of the information which we shall make use of is already in 
the pcosessiou of at least some of the pupils. We shall want each 
pupil to contribute to the fullest extent, such knowledge as he may 
have about tlie particular topic which we are considering. It is 
then the business of the teaclier to organize this mass of information, 
to assist the pupils to fill in the gaps wixno they exist and then by 
every device which they possess to le, pils to organize that 

wliich they already know. The lesscii itself may be largely conver- 
iational, varied with readings and reports. From time to time, 
visits may be made to industrial plants, to commercial centers, to 
the stock exchange, and to institutions of learning where youiig 
I'H n and women are definitely prepared for their life work. 

The difticnlty which underlies the application of a course of study 
sncli as lias been suggested, is to be found in the aim of the course, 
rather than in the content. It would be a comparatively si"M>i" 
uiatter to give instruction, in the subjects listed, if the obj' 
instruction were the mere acquisition of information. The difficuUy. 
li.'wever, lies in the fact that we are attempting to develop a pomt 
of view, an attitude of mind, a civic consciousness. The crux of the 
situation lies in the teacher. If our ends are to be attained, the 
!e;u-her must be an intelligent, broadminded, far seeing citizen with 
;i civic ])oint of vioAv, capable of inspiring our boys and; g:rls witli 
the desire for rendering a real service to themselves, and to tlieir 

fellow Citiz^'n"^ in tl*'^ Irwpl r'nii"'iini?Ti-i'-\' in +]'p t'f'i+o •T'lil in flm 

nation. 

In concliisitMi may I preseni the four words which I believe ni;'.v 
be taken as representative of the dominating ideals of civic instruc- 
tion as we find it developing today for the twelve years. First 
moi'ality; second, service; third, coopcration^; fourth, leadership. 
As the course is inductive, 1 believe that we must find in the iipper 
years of the Junior High School and in tli« Penior High School as 
-'! whole, all four of these ];rinciples, but that we must rely on our 
Senior High Rrhool for tli-:> <l'^"'>-'-'i>rr!cnt of the r^.;! lead'^r;-^ of r'^rht, 



26 

civic thought and action in our communities. And it therefore 
behooves us to exercise every; possible care that the boys and girls 
who possess qualities of leadership be urged, encouraged, and 
assisted in every possible way to continue their education that they 
may develop into the highest possible type of good citizen. 



A TOPICAL COT'RSE IN UNITED STATES HISTORY FOR 
THE LATTER PART OF THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE 



J. MONTGOMERY GAMBRILL, ColumUa University , N. Y. 



All history courses should be topical. There is a place in the 
earlier grades for studies' primarily intended to give simple story, 
atmosphere, familiarity with persons and events, interest, and the 
like; incidentall}' there should be throughout the twelve years of 
school collateral reading that is selected chiefly for such ends. But 
from the earliest attempt to organize a connected course to show 
development, the progress of a society, a topical treatment is essen- 
tial to adequate results. Only by intelligent grouping can the 
relation of details to larger movements, as well as the influence of 
these movements of change upon each other and upon the whole 
course of development, be indicated. 

It does not follow, however, that the topical ti'eatment should be 
the same for all courses in a given field. On the contrary there can 
and should be graded progress within the subject, just as there are 
stages of advancement in mathematics or French. The grading of 
history with reference to the maturity of the pupil has been admir- 
ably treated by Professor Johnson ("Teaching of History-, ch. u), 
who shows that "Particular facts relating to external conditions 
and activities are plainly the A B C's of history * * * » » 
Advanced history is history presented in the form of general con- 
cepts." There is progress from "concrete examples" to "collective 
or general facts." Another kind of advancement may follow this 
])rogress described by Professor Johnson, however, an advancement 
based upon increasing mastery of the materials as well as upon 
ability to grasp general facts. What can be done in the latter part 
of the high school will depend upon what has been done in the pre- 
ceeding grades. 

What kind of progress is desirable as well as possible? should 
be the next question. The educators of today are more and more 
insisting that history should be so taught that it may assist one in 



27 

iijulerslanflinjf the society of which he is a part, and contribute to 
his ability to attack the problems with which that society must 
(leal. Some extremists propose that the ordered study of historical 
development be abandoned entirely in favor of an incidental study 
of the "back-ground" of particular problems that arise in connection 
with "projects" In civics, geography, industrial arts, or current 
events. Such a phm would sacrifice the distinctive contribution 
which history has 1o make to education — the conception of an ever- 
changing society in which the various factors of influence (economic, 
social, political, geographic, personal, etc.) are intimately related 
as parts of one complex whole. It would inevitably leave informa- 
tion scrappy and impressions confused, as to how our modern world 
came to be as it is. At the same time it must be admitted that if 
history is to have a practical value for citizenship aside from the 
general conceptions and attitudes that it may create, a usefulness 
for attacking, particular problems that confront the citizen, the 
demand will come in connection with particular problems like for- 
eign relations (or more specifically, the Monroe Doctrine, say), pro- 
tective staff, political parties, labor problems, transportation, or 
some phase of social reform. 

There are, in fact, two sets of aims, both desirable, both essential 
to the best practical training that tbe subject can offer. There 
should be a conception of society developing (changing in some ways 
for the better and in some for the worse) and of the inter-relations 
of all the varied activities of man; but there should also be ready 
knowledge of the facts about origins and development behind par- 
ticular current situations and problems, the habit of using this mode 
of approach, and the ability to do it efficiently. 

These two things cannot be adequately done in the same course 
in the same year (at least with present time allotments), though 
much can be accomplished by an intelligently planned series of 
topical reviews at the end of the course. But they can be accom- 
plished when the same field is covered successively in different 
years. American history is now taught both in the elementary and 
the secondary school, usually for several years in all. The pro- 
posals of the new Committee of Eight provide for American history 
in grades III to VI (preceded by local history), and for considerable 
if not dominant attention to that field in connection with the world 
survey suggested for grades VII-VIII. Even with less extended 
study of the American field in the earlier grades, is it not wasteful 
to go through the same old type of general survey and epitome in 
the last year of the high scTiool? It is a well known fact that chil- 
dren weary of this endless repetition, reviewing in a little more 
mature way the same old material. 



28 

Real progiv's.s might be made both in knowladgw of history aad in 
ihe practical value of liistorical study for civic education, not to 
mention fresh interest and enthusiasm, if in the several cycles there 
were introduced not only some new topics but radically different 
organizations of the field. It should be possilde to |ssume by the 
end of the higfi school course that the pupil has some useable knowl- 
edge of the general story of American history, of its main charac- 
ters and events. A general familiarity, even in the absence of inti- 
mate or thorough mastery, would suffice as a basis for new modes 
of attack in the field. The earlier work should, moreover, provide a 
topical groupiiTg around interpretative themes within the large 
periods into which the whole development natural!}' falls, -thus 
revealing the relations of men and events to the main tendencies of 
the times. Upon such a foundation could be built a final course 
devoted exclusively to topics, eitlier large or small, running through- 
out the whole field necessary to study completely their origin an<l 
development. , 

The actual ^ lich a course should be selected only after 

corffsiderable study and discussion by experts both in tlie field of 
scholarship and of teachirg. The problem will be to find the spe- 
cific topics v>hicl! it will be most serviceable to study intensively 
in the genetj oposed. Can the work be done most profitably 

with rather largo to]>ies, like "Economic and Industrial Develop- 
ment," "Fore';j:i IR'lations," "Progress of Democracy/' "The Ameri- 
can People," Mcrican Ideals," or much smaller units like the 
development nortation inventions, tarifl", political parties, 
domestic con;; . . . i oreign commerce, money and finance, immigra- 
tion, trusts, the Monroe doctrine? Each plan will have its advan- 
tages and disadvantages, and in eitlier case the overla[»ping will be 
t'udless, more .so in the American field than in any other perhaps. 
?Iy own preference would be for a study based primaril}' on a few 
large topics, perhaps six to ten ; folloAved by, or perhaps accom- 
panied by, studies of the smaller, specific probh'uis orowiiio' out of 
regular classroom v;ork with current events. 

TJie subject is no't one that justifies dogmatism. It needs a good 
deal of careful study of tlie materials and carefu.lly-planued, prop- 
erly controlled experiment in the classroom. It must be realized 
that a topical course for the latter part of the high school cannot 
be safely planned by itself, but only v/ith reference to what has 
gone before, and consequently it may become necessary to intro- 
duce such courses gradually until properly prepared students are 
ready to realise the full possibilities. With such precautions, it 
seems to me that the case is very strong for such a topical course 
as has been suggested. If intelligently carried out it promises to 



20 

improve markedly the actual knowledge of the subject, and definitely 
to increase its value for civic education by developing the habit of 
viewing current i^roblems in relation to their historic background 
and the equipment for making the studies of the citizen efficient. 



4. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE 12TH GRADE 



EDGAR DAWSON, Hunter College, N. Y. 



AN ABSTRACT. 

I take it that the problems of democracy may be, in the main, 
economic and sociological; and that our organization of the com- 
munity for their solution is a matter of politics, government of 
political science. For I shoidd define political science as the state 
ment of our systematic knowledge of the best methods of organiza- 
/tion through which public opinion, the popular will, nmy be 
expressed in public administration. 

Most of our urobleras of democracy are age long problems; and 
our teaching of Them should leave in the mind of the pupil the fact 
that, while they niay not be insoluble, we must be patient with 
the efforts being made for their solution. He must bo- trained to 
reserve his judgment, to seek information, to organize with others 
in the formation of opinion, to distrust the cocksure demagogue and 
soap-box orator, to trust the expert and the scholar, to look back 
into historj' for similar phenomena to those of liis day and learn 
lessons from the past. 

rt has been recommended that we ask for a whole year of required 
economics and a whole year of American history and government. 
This seems to me an impracticable proposal. In the first place, the 
committees who are studjang the matter of organization of the 
high school are disposed to put the American history into the 11th 
srade. In the second place, it seems a little unreasonable to ask 
lor two-fifths of the ]jupils tinie in the 12th grade for the social 
studies, and other departments will become justly i)ii]>atient of us 
if we seem to them to be grasping. In the third place, it is likely 
that one year of four or five periods a week vrill ])rove to be enougji 
to state our case if our teachers are trained and if our work is well 
organized for purposes of efficient instruction. 



30 

The year devoted to the social studies should be divided about 
in two, the first half being given to problems of economics and 
sociology; the second half to methods of organization. But there 
may be two opinions about this method of arrangement. Some ask 
that the problems and the organizatio.n be taught together. While 
J cannot see the wisdom of this arrangement, I believe that the 
trained teacher who believes in it had better follow his own bent 
in the matter. 

Among the subjects to be taken up in the first part of the year, 
whether this part overrun the half or not, would be first, our 
resources of land, forests, streams, minerals, and the like; second, 
our industrial organization and the problems of labor supply and 
organization, the problem of the health of the worker and his safety, 
the problem of credit and capital ; third, our facilities for transpor- 
tation and communication, with the problems of monopoly control, 
rate adjustment, and the like; fourth, our facilities for education 
and our methods for their improvement; fifth, our arrangements 
for the care of those who cannot or will not care for themselves. 
These problems are mentioned, of course, merely to illustrate the 
sort of material that should be placed in this first part of the year. 
They should be taught as a matter of information, it is true, and 
every citizen should be informed about them ; but the main use to 
be derived from the teaching of them is the appreciation by the' 
pupil of the difficulties of modern society, its complexity, our need 
of the wisest organization obtainable and of * the best trained 
experts that we can produce. 

In the second half of the year, or somewhat less than half, we 
come to the organization of the community for purposes of coop- 
eration in the solution of these problems. Here, I maintain, the 
basic principles of political science can be taught and that with 
great profit. We should teach first the principles j^f our govern- 
ment in so far as these principles are sound, — the efficacy of rep- 
resentative institutions, confidence in law and its administration 
even when its administration does not reach the point of super- 
human perfection, willingness to support the system- of private 
property as the best means of stimulating energy and constructive 
economic thought; but we should not be satisfied with teaching 
things as they are. The science of politics tells us that much of 
our organization is defective having been based on the now dis- 
credited theory of the separation of powers. Our scholars in this 
'field are in almost absolute agreement on certain changes that 
should be made in our governments, — particularly those of the 
states and cities. The proposals for these changes are based in the 
most careful study and analj'^sis of political experience; and they 
should be taught in the schools. Among them are the short ballot, 



31 

executive budget, departmental organization in the state and city 
governments with consolidation of our numerous boards, commis- 
sions, and other loose ends of irresponsibility and extravagance. It 
is useless here to go into any discussion of the content of such a 
course, and time is not available for it; these topics are mentioned 
only to illustrate the contention that the soundest principles of 
democratic organization should be taught in the last year of the 
high school. 

The graduates of the high schools are to be our leaders. The college 
and university get so small a proportion of our growing citizens that 
their output is not sufficient. We must depend on the work of the 
high schools to put into the public mind the main principles that 
we want incorporated in our public life. If we want the executive 
budget it must be taught in the high school and if we do so teach 
it will come even though it may be slow in doing so. But to recur 
to the first part of the year, we cannot interest the pupils in these 
questions of organization unless we catch their attention with the 
problems for the solution of which the organization is to be main- 
tained. 

This teaching may be made concrete and constructive. It should 
never be distructive or generally critical. A course in government 
which does not result in an abiding faith in the future of democracy 
is a curse, and any teacher who is not an enthusiast for organized 
representative government should never be allowed to conduct a 
recitation in history, economics, or government if he can be prevented 
from doing so. The pessimist and the critic with a disorganized or 
unorganized mind is a canker in any community, and to make a 
teacher of him merely helps him to spread his disease. The scholars 
in the field of government have developed and published a model city 
charter. A model state constitution is in process of preparation. 
These documents will not be the dreams of the fanatic or the fragile 
webs of the theorist; but they will be the result of joint work on 
the part of careful, trained, practical men, and they will be based on 
the best experience now available. They should be taught as the 
basis of our future political thought. 

The teacher should not teach as political science the opinions of 
a few. He should be able to difterentiate between what is accepted 
by a large majority, possibly of all, the scholars in his field, on the 
one hand, and the proposals of a few on the other. Above all things 
the teacher should not air his personal opinions to his classes without 
the most careful statement that they are merely his personal opinions. 
It is undesirable for him to do so even then, for what we need is 
citizens who look to generalizations based on cooperative scientific 
effort, only through such teaching can democracy be made safe from 
the demagogue^ 



And so we come to the basic i'act oi ail teaching. The course 
depends on the teacher; the teacher is the course. To paraphrase 
a statement made in other connections. If 1 may control the training 
of the teachers, let anyone who will write the course of study. Give_ 
us teachers soundly trained in the principles of government and in 
the problems we have to solve, and I shall guarantee the results. 
Without such teachers, all the course making is futile waste of time 
and effort. 



SOME piiijs^cirLt:s of method i:n teaching history 

AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 



C. H. FISHEK, State Normal School, Went Chester 



History iov history's sake has no place in the public school system. 
The impression left upon a child by a fact in history is more im- 
portant than the fact itself. The changes made in the individual 
are the fmal test in the teaching of any subject. There has been too 
much teaching of history and the social sciences for mere historical 
information and a knowledge^of the machinery of government and of 
the organization of society. The events of the last few years have 
shown us that our peop.e have not learned to think in these subjects. 
The mere amassing of information apart from the direct interests 
of life will never make anyone think in these subjects. 

We have set up a dualism between subject-matter and method. We 
rearrange the content of our courses and then superjmpose method 
upon that content. It is as though mind and the world of things^ 
were two separate entitles instead of two parts of the same thing 
that are acting and reacting upon each other. Dewey says, "Never 
is method something outside of the material. Method in any case 
is but an effective way of employing some material for some end. 
Method means that arrangement of subject-matter which makes it 
most effective in use." History and social science teachers are guilty 
of tb.e same fundamental error that Latin and Mathematics teachers 
commit. They rearrange the content of their courses, change the 
emphasis of this or that, and improve the methods of instruction, 
but fail to examine the fundamental aims of High School education 
that may be promoted by their subject-matter. 

The first essential in any undertaking is to determine what one 
wants to accomplish. Then select the materials that will aid in the 
accomplishment and let the methods be the most effective that will 
bring about the desired ends. The ends are the fundamental socikl 



33 . 

aiuis of education, namely ethical efficiency, health efficiency, home- 
making efficiency, vocational efficiency, political efficiency, social 
service, use of individual leisure, and social intercourse. The psy- 
chological aspect of the ends sought are expressed in certain controls 
through which the social aims are to be accomplished. Such controls 
are ideals, attitudes, appreciation, opinions, points-ofview, vocabulary 
control, a manj^-sidedness of knowledge control, habit control, and 
transfer. 

An analysis of these aims will show little habit control, consider- 
able vocabulary control, a great deal of many-sidedness of knowledge, 
but most important of all the great possibilities for the development 
of ideals, attitudes, appreciations, opiniojis, and points of viev*'. 
Transfer is possible when the coiiditions of transfer are met. Trans 
fer can be made reasonably certain because the subject matter of 
liistory and the social sciences can be related to real life situations. 
Unless there is transfer to life's activities these subjects are taug\it 
to no purpose. 

The analysis shows that those who would stress to the exclusion 
of all else the social aspects of history, namely, an understanding of 
the present by the past would eliminate the most important aspects 
of history, such as, the development of ideals, attitudes, appreciations, 
opinions, and points-ofview. These latter aims can be realized only 
in an accumulative way and through an emotional appeal. There 
must be a careful selection of mateiial and situations that make 
an emotional appeal. 

The teaching of a subject like Problems of American Democracy 
or Civics in the last year of a four-year course will not result in 
accumulative impressions so desirable for the development of ideals, 
attitudes, etc. I believe that a careful analysis will show that the 
mere chronological arrangement of this phase or that phase of 
history and the social sciences will not result in desirablj aims of 
education. I would prefer to use the term social science to include 
history, economics, sociological, political science, civics, and social 
problems and then disregarding these subjects, as such, select material 
from>any of these sources that has a reasonable guarantee upon 
careful analysis of accomplishing the desirable social and psycho- 
logical aims of education. 

One might say that there would be no history, economics or 
sociology left but for this I have no concern. The chief concern is 
that desirable ends of education may be realized in our citizenship 
raTllier than that certain subjects should be kept intact. If our 
people are to learn to think by means of the social sciences then 
the approach must be such as will make them think. Thinking in- 
volves a real situation that presents an actual difficulty or problem 
to the learner. T quote again from Dewey, "The true starting point 



84 

of history is always some preseut situation with its problems. A 
systematized branch of know^ledge instead of furnishing a starting 
point for learning, marks out a consummation." 

The chronology and logic of the social sciences must give way 
whenever they preclude the possibility of real thinking. On the other 
hand chronology and logic are to be retained whenever they serve 
useful purposes. Out of it all should come principles, chronology, 
and sequence in so far as they are a desirable asset in one's thinking 
but as Dewey says this is the consummation and not the starting 
point. History, economics, sociology and political science as such 
must be reserved for older and more mature students. A primary 
obligation rests upon the public* high schools to serve the larger 
values of education rather than to teach subjects as subjects. 

While much that has been said may seem to be indefinite yet 
definiteness is in the background with respect to desirable social and 
psychological aims of education. More detailed analysis will have 
to be made than is here possible. Text-books will have to be provided 
as guides for teachers and along with text-books there ought to be 
manuals for teachers that would be suggestive of methods. These 
things could be done only by a consensus of opinion among competent 
persons, such as, historians, teachers, and educational theorists. 



ENGLISH 



(35) 



m 



( aft^ 



sriU?;rT: LlTEliATl'KE IN SCHOOL 



! ) THK AIMS TN TEACHING LITERATURE FN THE ORADES 
AND HIGH SCHOOLS. 



VKFA) L. HOMER, ."^chenlci/ Jfiffh i<ehool^ PitUhurgli 



lu discussing tliis subject I shall conliue myself chiefly to the 
problem of the high school. 1 have never taught in any grade school, 
except an ungraded country school, so I do not feel competent to 
discuss grade school problems in detail. 1 do, however, think that in 
the grades the aim should be two-fold : to have the children learn 
stories and to have them learn poetry by heart. There should be no 
more study than is necessary to enable them to reproduce the great 
stories of the world, and espeicially ot America (Hiawatha, for ex- 
ample) ; and to fill their memories witli a great many poems by Long- 
fellow, Whittier, Hohnes, and other American poets that they will 
not fully understand at the time but which they should know as they 
know tlieir multiplication table. 1 lind many high school seniors who 
have never read the great American classics such as "Hiawatha" and 
"Evangeline" and "Sncnvbound" and as to l)eing able to quote them, 
that is not to be thought of. We hear a great deal about American- 
ization of foreigners these days. We need a propaganda to encourage 
the Americanization of Americans. This tilling the mind with stories 
and verses will lay the necessary foundation for the work in the 
high school. Let us now see what the aims of that work should be. 
Perhaps I can best api)roach the subject by pointing out what the 
aims should not be. 

What it is Not: 

1. It is not to acquaint the pupil with a large body of literature — 
to enrich his nature and give him culture by a hasty reading of many 
classics. For most boys and girls such reading begins in misai)pr('- 
hension and ends in superficiality. 

2. It is not to acquaint the pupil with tWe various literary forms 
and to encourage in him the idea that he is a competent literary 
critic. He should not be taught to compare Milton with Shakespeare 
or the period of Italian with that of French influence. Much of the 
time spent on literary forms and types and characteristics and char- 
acters is time and effort worse than wasted. The pupil has not the 
information or the maturity of mind necessary to such discussions 
and furthermore such methods mislead the student into thinking that 
his main business is to classify and discuss rather than understand 
and appreciate a book. 

(37) 



38 

3. It is not primarily to auiuse and give pleasure to the pupils 
though this is perhaps the prevalent idea. It seems to be assumed 
that since most young people are fond of reading (The Saturday 
Evening Post, say) that therefore they are to be entertained, though 
in a more refined and highbrow way in the literature classroom. We 
are told that the atmosphere of the literature classroom, must be 
cheerful and free from constraint so that the pupil will imbibe a 
love of good literature. True, the atmosphere of the literature class- 
room should be cheerful — but in exactly the same sense that the at- 
mosphere of the algebra classroom should be. True, the pupils should 
love the subject of literature but exactly just as they should love 
the study of science. 

It is degrading the noble subject of literature to conceive its 
aim as that of inspiring a love by means of entertainment. If we 
think more worthily of our subject we shall be less anxious to make 
pupils love it by making it entertaining and delightful. 

What then, should we aim at? In the first place, we should aim 
to inculcate worthy ideals. But not too much should be expected 
along this line. The chief teacher and developer of ideals must 
always be the home and home influence. But as "We all, with open 
face, beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord are changed into 
the same image," inevitably', we may liope that something of the 
unselfishness of Henry Esmond, something of the patience of Silas 
Marner, something of the love of all created things of the converted 
Ancient Mariner will become a part of our pupils' lives. 

Another aim should be that enlargement of heart and broadening 
of mind that comes from a knowledge of human life obtained through 
books; especially the knowledge of character gained through great 
fiction such as "Henry Esmond" or drama such as "Macbeth;" and 
of the remote in time and space such as comes through "Sohrab and 
Rustum" or the "Ancient Mariner" or "Ivanhoe." "Home-keeping 
youths have very homely wits," and next to travel itself and long life, 
books dealing with the past and the distant are the best broadeners 
and deepeners of the youthful mind. 

Another equally important aim, though its benefits are less im- 
mediately evident than the foregoing, is the furnishing of an outlet 
to the emotions, which is a "balm of hurt minds" and one of the 
strongest desires of a human being, as Professor Smith points out 
in his excellent book, "What can Literature do for me." This outlet 
is found in the words of the great writers who through the ages have 
given most adequate expression to our deepest human emotions. 
There are times when only Shakespeare's "How weary stale," etc. 
can express our mental and moral weariness; or Milton's "Sober 
certainty of" etc. our perfect happiness. Sometimes we need to 
remember Lowell's "No mud" etc. and still again "They also serve," 



etc. Nowadays especially we need to be sure "That from tbes^e honurt.Hl 
dead" etc. and many many times we neeil the comforting assurance 
**I know not where" etc. This outlet to our emotions and this "balm 
of hurt mines" can only be obtained by learning by heart the great 
passages in literature. Hence the need of much memorizing. The 
pupils will not at the times fully realize the beauty or the power of 
the lines memorized but that is no reason why they should not learn 
them. Once get the great words firmly fixed in their minds and in 
later life they will find abundant comfort in them. 

Most important of all our aims should be that of developing power 
on the part of our pupils — the power of understanding and appreciat- 
ing the printed page. And it must be understood as absolutely funda-. 
mental that the understanding precedes the apiyreciation. And this 
understanding can be gained in only one way, not by wide reading, 
not by courses in appreciation, not by pointing out how beautiful a 
passage is — but only by the hardest kind of study. John Ruskin may 
have said many foolish and absurd things, but he was eternally right 
when he said that the great society of the dead can be entered only 
by the hardest kind of labor— that the student must dig as the miner 
digs for gold, that he must bring to bear his care, wit, and learning 
upon the meaning of every word. There is no other way. And yet 
how little is it used. We read many classics and discuss them, and 
outline them, and write character-sketches about them, and do every- 
thing but the one thing needful — study them word for word to get the 
author's meaning, so we may understand them. The need for this 
is two-fold. In the first place, our pupils need the training. They 
cannot read a paragraph containing new or unusual ideas and re- 
produce accurately the contents. How can they be good citizens of 
a democracy when they cannot understand the problems confronting 
them? I believe the fundamental need of our schools is to develoj) 
greater clearness and accuracy in thinking — and I believe the study 
of a great piece of literature, such as "Macbeth" or "Sesame and 
Lilies" is one of the best ways to develop that power. 

In the second place, this intensive study is needed to secure that 
understanding which means appreciation. I believe profoundly that 
if pupils dislike good literature it is generally because they do not 
understand it. I profoundly distrust the doctrine that one can ap- 
preciate without understanding. I will admit one may enjoy either 
"Macbeth" or "Diamond Dick" or the "movies" without understanding 
them. But one cannot appreciate- Shakespeare or Milton without 
understanding him and that means the hardest kind of study. If 
we would have our young people learning to love and enjoy good 
books we must first train, them to understand good books. As 1 
said before. Ruskin is eternally right — there is no other way. 



40 I 

And this need of understanding is especially true of poetry — for 
there they must understand not merely the difficult subject-matter 
but the form as well. 1 submit that pupils should be taught versifica- 
tion — not superficially but most thoroughly. Only so can they learn 
to appreciate good poetry. For rhythm is fundamental in verse even 
in free verse, and 1 am convinced that much of the dislike and sup- 
posed dislike of poetry is due entirely to lack of training to appreciate 
the form as well as the meaning. Every year I find seniors in high 
school who do not know that Shakespeare's plays are poetry. Tie 
music of Antony's or Portia's great speeches is entirely lost upon 
them. When the subject-matter and the verse-form are both under- 
stood, good poetry will be ai)preciated by the average young person. 
Walter Bagehot speaks in one of his literarj^ essays of ''a vague convic- 
tion that poetry is but one of the many amusements for the enjoying 
classes, for the lighter hours of all classes. The mere notion, the bare 
idea, that poetry is a deep .thing, a teaching thing, the most surely 
and wisely elevating of human things, is even now to the coars^e public 
mind, nearly unknown." 

1 am sure the idea of the value of pot'tiy is not unknown to those 
present and so 1 make a special plea for a thorough teaching of 
verse forms as a means of appreciating poetry. 

But whether prose or verse be studied, a mastery of the author's 
meaning is the only road to understanding and appreciating; and it 
is the only method which will so train our young people as to make 
Ihein worthy citizcuis in a great democracy. Let us aim to inspire our 
pupils with noble ideals, let us aim to enlarge their horizon and 
increase their knowledge, let us supply then) with an outlet for their 
emotions and a balm for their hurt minds, above all, let us so train 
them that they will be able for themselves to as<sociate with the great 
company of "saints and sages and poets and scholars who are all 
gone into the world of light" and so be fitted to do their share in 
leaving t\w world better than they found it. 



READING THE CLASSICS 



(2) MRS. ELIZABETH LODOR MERCHANT, Wni. Penn High 

School, Philadelphia 



Literature is a universal reiiuiremeut in secondary school course's. 
What are its claims to protecti(m? Cliiefly the following: (1) It 
embodies and transmits social values and ethical standards ; it is the 
distilled wisdom of the centuries; (2) It is the vehicle of beauty as 
well as of truth; (3) It creates interest in everyday life by interpret 
int' the commonplace; thus it enriches the individual life. 



41 

Ou what bat>is should books for a secondary school course he 
selected to attain these ends? The selection should be determined 
by the range of sympathy and imagination of adolescent minds, be- 
cause on no other basis can intimacy with books develop. Thought 
that belongs to maturity is not accessible to inexperience. David 
caniK)t fight in Saul's armor. 

A liberal prescribed course from the lOnglish classics has delinite 
advantages in securing these ends. ( 1 ) It will yield the best body 
of human experience — social and ethical. (2) It will give the highest 
types of beauty. (3j It will insure variety of literary types. (4) It 
will to some extent guard against courses giveri for the i)leasure of 
the instructor rather than for the benefit of the class. (.")) it will 
give a common denominator for use of higher institutions. 

There are also disadvantages to be considered. (I) Being subject 
to examination, it exalts examination possibilities and sacrifices in- 
spiration. (2) It hampers instructors in the use of con tempore ry 
literature (books and magazines). (3) It has a t<^ndency to draw 
to itself books that are not in the range of adolescent minds — just 
because they are classics. 

Balancing these considerations, we may agree to keep a consider- 
able body of classic reading and to omit certain definite pieces of 
writing. 

Omit: 

1. Burke's Conciliation in favor of Washington's and Lincoln's 
writings. 

2. Milton's Minor Toenis in favor of selected poems from I'al- 
grave's Golden Treasury. 

3. Carlyle's Burns and, if released by College Entrance Board, 
Macaulay's Johnson. Substitute familiar essays (Lamb and 
Stevenson) and contemporary magazine writing. 

4. Most literature of the so called formal period: Boswell's 
Johnson, Pojte, Addison, etc. 

Read: 

1. Old Testament Stories, Iliad, Odyssey, Aeneid. Norse Tales, 
Song of Roland, Arabian Nights, Fairy Tales and Folk 
Lore, etc. Cultural background material. 

2. Shakespeare and other dramatists: She Stoojjs to Conquer, 
Rivals. 

3. Novels and romances: Ivanhoe, David Copjterfield, Silas 
Marner, Lorna Doone, Hou^e of Seven Gables, etc. 

4. Biography iind Essay: Fraidilin's Aufobiograijliy, Sleveji- 
son's Travels with a Donkey, etc. 

.5. Poetry: Tennesson's Idylls, selecte<l lyries aixl narrative 
poems (Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, Scott, Goldsmith, etc.), 
American poetry. 



42 



[li) WHAT IS THE PLACE OF LIVING WRITERS IN OUR 
HIGH SCHOOL COURSES? 



HAROLD C. GODDARD, ^icarthmorc Colleyc 

/ 

The success oT (he democratic experimeut we are making depends 
c 11 the education of the people. No education deserves the name that 
iif not both vocational and liberal. But a liberal education is im- 
possible without contact with the art of one's time. Contact with 
the classics is not enough, for only as the present is made the key 
to the past can the past become the key to the present. This puts 
us in a dilemma. Either we must teach contemporary literature in 
our high schools, or, if our youth are not old enough for it, we must 
keep them in school until they are. Apparently the first alternative 
is the only present possible one. 

But the teaching of contemporary literature in the high school in- 
volves two immense difficulties. (1) No one is entitled to decide 
for any one else who our greatest living writers are. (2) Contempo- 
rary literature, like all things creative, is explosive; it bristles with 
criticism of things as they are. But dangerous as it will seem to 
some to let our youth listen to our contemporary poets and prophets, 
it is immeasurably more dangerous not to let them listen. The solu- 
tion of the difficulty lies in the character of the teachers. They must 
be men and women of exceptional personality and social vision. Get 
teachers of this sort, and then leave them free to teach whatever 
literature they feel an enthusiasm for. The variety to which this 
method will give rise will ensure the preservation of that most pre- 
cious of all things in a democracy: intellectual liberty. For liberty 
and individuality are two names for the same thing. 



SUBJECT: COMPOSITION AND METHODS 
(1) WHAT HAVE WE A RIGHT TO EXPECT AS A RESULT OF 
OUR INSTRUCTION IN COMPOSITION? . 



JOHN BERKEMA, Technical High School, McKeesport 



Place of English in the Modern High School. In the past we were 
content to style English as "power to appreciate literature." We 
did not care for ordinary accuracy and conventional accuracy. Many 
held this theory: ''after matters of technique have become so easy that 
we need to give them little attention, we may seek for something 
original to say." Others have said, "when these elements of literary 



43 

construction are once understood, the problem of composition is 
merely that of their affective combination." Now we demand com- 
position to be the teaching of plain essentials of decent style. English 
compositions must be thought of as social in content, social in methods 
of acquirements. 

Every pupil must speak or write to or for somebody with a real 
desire to inform, persuade, inspire, or entertain. This is the function 
of composition in the modern high- school, namely, to acquire accu 
racy, fluency, and clearness of expression of thought. 

The expression in speech includes: 

1. Ability to answer clearly, briefly, and exactly any question 
on which one has the necessary information. 

2. Ability to join in an informal discussion, contributing one's 
share of information without wandering from the point 
under discussion. 

Expression in writing includes: 

1. Ability to write a courteous letter according to the forms 
in general use. 

2. Ability to compose a clear and readable paragraph on famil- 
iar subject matter. 

Based on these principles the composition work, generally speaking, 
must be correct as to formal details, as, correct spelling, correctness 
in grammar and idiom, and the observance of the ordinary rules for 
capitals and marks of punctuation. The pupil at all times must be 
filled with a desire to arouse some interest, idea, or feeling in his 
hearer or reader. He should acquire a concise and vigorous style, 
a firmness and flexibility in constructing sentences and paragraphs. 

Some essentials we have a right to expect in our composition work: 

I. Selection of a subject suitable to the ability and interest of the 
pupil. The aim here should be to train the pupil to compose a cleat 
and readable paragraph on familiar subject matter, with due observ- 
ance of unity and order. The pupil should select subjects that are 
familiar to him, and which lend themselves to treatment by contrast, 
by comparison, by example, by detail. The pupil must feel he has 
something to say on some subject within the range of his experience. 
Each composition should show progress in the pupil's ability to 
express himself. If the material for composition work is taken from 
the experience of pupil, we may rightly expect him to give attention 
to correctness rather than to mastery of thought, to write or speak 
convincingly by reason of his own interest, to give some attention 
to the arrangement and presentation of his thoughts in a manner 
likely to arouse interest in others. 



44 

IT. The place of letter writing in composition. "The letter is an 
indispensable agency of civilization." Letter writing is the form of 
writing the pupil will use most frequently. Klapper writes: "In 
the workaday world one writes because he is actuated by two condi- 
tions: (1) He has something to say. (2) He has someone to 
whom to say it." 

Aims we should hold up to and require of our pupils. 

(1) The pupil should determine what lie wants — how he wants it. 

(2) He should write neatly and punctuate correctly. 

(3) His full address should be given — his signature should be 

legible. 

(4) He should paragraph each new matter of business and each 

item in a bill of goods. 

(5) He should examine the sentence structure to make sure he 

has said exactly what he has wished to say. 

III. Some minimum essentials in Grammar, Punctuation. Cap- 
italization, and Spelling. 

( I ) Gh'ammar. 
Avoidance of: 

(a) Amputated members of sentences, i. e., Clauses and phrases 

w-ritten as sentences. 

(b) Gross disagreement between verb and subject. 

(c) Gross error in case, i. e., objective case as subject. 

(d) Stringy compound sentences, members joined by "ands'' 

and "buts." 

(e) Long incoherent sentences thrown together witliout an 

apparent plan. 

(f) Dangling participial phrases. 

(g) Shift in tense. 

(h) ExtT'ome wordiness. 

(II) Capitalisation. 

(a) To begin with capitals, sentences, proper names, names of 

months and days, first word in lines of poetr}', nouns and 
adjectives of language and race. 

(b) Not to begin with capitals, names of the seasons or points 
of the compass. 

(TIT) Punctuation. 
Periods : 

(a) 1. At end of sentence. 

2. At end of Abbreviations. 

(b) Question marks at end of interrogative sentences. 



45 

(c) Comiuas: 

1. To set oil" words ol" address. 

2. To set off appositives. 

0. To separate words of a series. 

4. To set off absolute phrases. 

(IV) Spelling. 

1. The rule explainiug siiflixes and prefixes. 

2. The rule for ei and ie, and in believe, receive. 
H. The rule for doubling of a final consonant. 

•i. The rule for change of final y. 

5. The rule for final c before a suffix. 

6. Words as — to, too, two ; there, their ; its, it's. 

IV. Methods to be pursued: 

1. Have class exercises in the organization of material. 

2. Have pupils hand in outlines of work covered in literature 

and in completed themes. 

3. Have written work done in the classroom under supervision 

of teacher. 

4. Have definite and stated testing of the pupils' progress as 

to clearness through unity and coherence. 

5. Have oral composition ]trecede written composition on subject 

under discussion. 

V. IJesults to Ite expected from such study: 

1. Accuracy of observation and vividness of imagination. 

2. Clear and logical thinking. 

3. A sense of order and completeness. 

4. Adoption of subject matter to a particular audience. 

5. Observances of standard usage in matters of external form. 



(2) ELIMINATION OP NON EvSSENTIALS IN THE TEACHING 

OF ENGLISH 



MARY B. FONTAINE, Supervisor of English, Charleston, W. Va. 



I. The organization of courses of English in American schools 
should be centred around a core of Americanism. All the teaching 
of the mother tongue should make a real contribution to the life 
needs of American citizens. 



46 

II. Causes of the present inefficiency of the teaching of English: 

1. Lack of trained teachers. 

2. Lack of effective supervision, which would to some extent 

overcome the disadvantage of No. 1. 

3. Clinging to traditional courses of study which include much 

material not relevant to present day life. 

4. Failure to unify the work of English teaching in such a way 

that each contribution functions in the lives oi students. 
Under this head is included the formal teaching of such 
subjects as grammar, spelling, composition, etc. 

5. Lack of a consistent viewpoint from which the courses in 

English from the primary school through the secondary 
are planned. 

III. Essentials in the teaching of English: 

1. A vital acquaintance on the part of each school child with 

the literature that generates ideals and reveals new vistas 
of life. 

2. A love and respect for the mother tongue that will show 

itself in careful and adequate expression. The language of 
the street cannot be accepted as the standard of American 
speech. 

3. Such a study of organization that children will gain power 

to express in speech and in writing clearly and forcibly 
whatever presses for expression. Such expression should 
be child-like and simi)le, and free from affected forms. 

4. A thorough mastery of the spelling of the written vocabulary, 

of essential punctuation marks, capitals, and letter forms. 

5. A knowledge of those elements of grammar that are useful 

in mastering the sentence and in acquainting pupils with 
the standard of accepted usage. 

IV. Agreement on these essentials leads to the elimination of 

the following non-essentials : 

1. Formal work in speech that does not vitally connect uj) with 

children's usage, such as filling of blanks in sentences, the 
formal teaching of grammar that has no application to 
written composition and daily usage. 

2. In teaching literature we should omit those classics that do 

not have a message for boys and girls of today. The dry- 
as-dust method of analysis that dissects and desiccates the 
literary selection studied is wasteful of time and destruc- 
tive of real interest in literature. 



47 

Oral compositiou ot a formal type, ol'ten giveu indistinctly 
and without real interest on the part of either speaker or 
audience. Instead of this wasteful procedure we should 
use well motivated, socialized situations, in which students 
have the opportunity to apply the principles of good talk- 
ing. 

Formal rhetorical principles, such as the distinction of the 
four forms of discourse, formal development of paragraphs. 
Composition in which the needs of students lead them to 
seek the best ways of expressing their thought are more 
economical than such formal exercises. 



(3) THE PLACE OF THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION IX THE 

ENGLISH CLASS 



W. E. STRAWINSKI, Techmcal High School, Harrisburg 



The discussion, was oi»eued by the reading of excerpts from the 
writings of Dr. Dewey and Dr. Dutton, and others, of which the fol- 
lowing are representative: 

"How is the recitation conducted so as to allord opportunity for 
interchange of experience and knowledge for the benefit of others. 
Instead of serving merely as a test by the teacher of knowledge 
acquired?" (Dr. Dewey). 

"Is the acquisition of knowledge of such tremen<lous importance 
that the social code is to bo constantly violated in the schoolroom? 
^ The recitation affords a fine opportunity for coopera- 
tion and mutual assistance. The teacher should not be too prominent. 
Each pupil should participate, every one should make his contribu- 
tion." (Dr. Dutton). 

"The best preparation for citizenship is to live and practice in the 
school those principles that characterize the good citizen." (Dr. 
Dutton). 

Characteristics of the socialized recitation were enumerated as 
follows: 

1. Lifelike, free of needless artificial restraint, natural, vitalized. 

2. Individual responsibility for contributing to the recitation. 

3. Cooperation for mutual benefit, laboring together at some- 

thing worth while. 

4. Practice in deeds of good citizenship, leading and following. 



48 



To determine the place of the socialized recitation in the English 
class, it is advisable to contrast the socialized with the academic 
method. For this jjurpose, the differences cited by Professor C. J. 
Thompson, of the Cleveland High School, were outlined and pre- 
sented in chart form. (The fnll report of a study of the socialized 
method in written composition appears in the February, llVll), issue 
of Tlic ^cJiool Review). This study i)rovos the superiority of the 
socialized method over tlie academic method in the case of two 
groups in the Freshman class of the Cleveland High School. 



SOCIALIZED. 


DIFFERENCES 


ACADEMIC. 


Genuine 1. 


Nature of situations 


Series of practice periods 


Varying 


in which learners 


in writing correct and 


Social Situations 


are placed. 


effective English. 


Vitalized 






Primarily Interest 2. 


Nature of problems 


Correctness 


a social Please 


growing out of such 


Fluency 


problem to 


situations. 


To secure Unity 


Benefit 




Coherence 


Convince 




Proportion etc. 


Through study of Mechanics 




Through study of Mechanics 


Elementry principles of 




Elementry principles of 


general excellence 




general excellence 



A suitable letter 

Constant 

Reply to a letter 

Read by classmates 

Communicate, interest, 
please, benefit, con- 
vince 

Mechanics and elementary 
principles of general ex- 
cellence as means. 



Story-toller, teacher, com- 
munity worker (Leon- 
ard) 

Interest, please, benefit, 
convince, win approval of 
classmates 

Learn by doing 

Consciousness of thp utility 
and satisfying effect of 
the procedure 

Social realization 

Teacher's approval and a 
good grade 



3. Form of written work. Theme : name, section, date, 

margin, etc. 

4. Nature and amount Occasional 

of publicity given Read by teacher 

themes. Best themes read to class 

5. Controlling and direct- Attention directed towards 



ing the attention of 
learner. 



G. 



elements of excellence : 
clearness, correctness, 
fluency, unity, etc. 

Broaden and fix principles 
of general excellence and 
knowledge of mechanics. 

To write correct English 
on assigned topics. 

Nature of the stimuli Teacher's approval and a 
which drive the good grade, 
learner to make the Vague notion that he is de- 
best use of his prac- veloping power of self- 
tice period. expression in correct En- 

glish. 
Self-realization. 



4» 

The problem ol' organization was briefly considered under four 
heads: i)arliamentary, round table, absence of formal organization, 
teacher as leader. 

The activity of the teacher was outlined as follows: 

1. 'Lays general plans,, provides for social situations. 

2. Establishes, directly or indirectly, definite aims. 
.*{. Acts ;ts arbiter, court of last resort. 

4. Is the soul of (lie work, the guiding personality. 
Two personal convirlious were presented by the one who opened 
the discussion: 

1. The socialized recitation aifords a s^jlendid opportunity for 

''inliltratiou/' that is luaking Hie English class in composi- 
tion the cleai-ing-house for knowledge acquired in other 
studies. 

2. The socialized recitation, especially in English, should be the 

labortntorv for training for citizenshi]». 



(4j Till': LlIiKAUV AS AN ALD TO THE TEACHER OP 

ENGLISH 



MAKY JANE CHAMBERS. Latimer Junior High School, Pittsburgh 



The help that the library can give the English department is based 
on comiiion aims. Jioth aim (1 J to cultivate the love for good books; 
(2) to develop the power to use books intelligently; (3) to ''socialize 
knowledge" gained in schools or from books. 

In teaching literature the teacher of English needs aid-^rom the 
library because of the limitations of his time, of his schedule, of his 
supplementary equipment. The library can furnish the help through 
guidance of individual students and through supplementary mate- 
rial, which includes book lists, stereoscopic and other pictures, 
posters and open shelves. 

In the composition work, the library and the English depart- 
ment are alike interested in training students to collect, organize 
and evaluate data secured from books and magazines. This necessi- 
tates the intelligent handling of printed data and requires training 
in the use of indexes, tables of content, the Readers' Guide, encyclo- 
pedias, systems of classification, and requires knowledge of the char- 
acter and purposes of important periodicals. The preliminary train- 
ing for such use of books can be given in the classroom ; the prac- 
tice must be given in the library. The library must be considered 
the laboratory of the composition class. 
4 



so 

The aid given by the library in instilling the love for good books | 
and in developing the power to use reference books intelligently 
heli)s in attaining the third aim mentioned: — the training of boys 
and girls who realize that the knowledge gained in the classroom | 
is directly related to the world and who as adults will use books ' 
and libraries as means of collecting, organizing and evaluating data 
necessary to form sound judgments. 

What are the problems? In the elementary school the problem 
of bringing together the child and the book is. solved partly hj the 
loan collections sent to the school, partly by the story hours held 
in the school by the librarians, partly bj' trips to the children's 
department. In the high school the problem of the use of the public 
library is different. In the high school the students are old enough 
to go to the public library, but the dependence of the English class 
upon the public library presents its own problems: — the lack of 
opportunity! to use the library because of employment of students 
after school, the need of supervision of students at work, the diffi- 
culty of unifying two distinct institutions under separate control. 
These problems are so serious that it is generally admitted that the 
high school needs its own library. The problem of its support and 
equipment must be considered as one of the questions of high school 
administration. The rural school presents another problem, serious 
because of the distance from the aid of the public library and 
because of the need of country boys and girls. The question of 
local and state support and supervision should be included among 
the f)roblems of rural education. 

Without adequate library aid the teacher of English suffers from 
poverty of supplementary books, the inability to use the laboratory 
method in getting materials for eoini>osition. and the lack of oppor- 
tunity to help students form the linbit of using :\ library. 



51 



SUBJECT: ORAL ENGLISH 



(1) ON IMPROVING THE SPEECH HABITS OF SCHOOL CHIL 

DREN 



OLIVE ELY HART, South Phihidelphiu Ififfh School 



The problem ot teaehiug children to speak correctly after they 
liave readied the high school is largely one of establishing a point 
of view in regard to habits of speech and of providing dramatic 
drill in order that right habits may be established. 

Students must be made to understand that the power to speak 
well has both a business and a social value. They must be helped 
to analyze common faults in English until they see that a handful 
of grammatical errors, some slang phrases and gross slovenliness 
of enunciation and pronunciation constitute the points of attack. 

When these fundamentals have been developed chiefly by reports 
of "overheard conversations'' and of business and social experiences, 
the way is paved for work. 

The point of view must be further broadened by insistence upon 
the fact that "Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth must 
speak." Another analysis of speech qualities which emphasizes the 
prime importance of ideas; the necessity for presenting ideas so 
that they may "get over;" the marvelous power of words to express 
ideas ; and the imjmrtance of the medium -the voice — through which 
spoken English takes form, will provide scope for tjie most extensive 
and intensive work in developing power to speak correctly and 
effectively. 

During all the work the best results can be obtained only when 
there is maintained a core of practice rather than a litany of pre- 
cepts. Dramatizations of facts to be established, game drills for 
rules, tag days, speech surveys, conversational conferences, reports 
of failures, successes, and .schemes for personal improvement, are 
not mere devices. They are essentials in removing the process of 
learning to speak well from the recesses of the brain where rules 
of grammar and rhetoric stagnate, to the tip of the tongue where 
the give and take of everyday talk must be forced into correct and 
vital expression. 

The people who are working most intensively with the problem 
of helping to train the next generation of Americans to "honor the 
language of the country as they honor the flag" report progress. 
What is more, the currents touch from all parts of the country, and 
there seems to be hope that we may live to walk through the streets 



82 • 

of our cities and lowiis without haviug r>v.v ears assailed as now, 
with the atrocities which pass lor the Eugiish language in America. 
The day will not come, however, until the point of attack is not" 
the high school, but the kindergarten. , 



(2) THE PKIONENTION AND CORKECTION OF SPEECH 

DEFECTS- 



FREDERICK MARTIN, M. D., Director of Speech Improvement, 
Board of Educatiorh. Neir York 



"Today I shall s])eak to you upon a topic which should be under- 
stood by all of us but \^hich is often misunderstood by most of us — 
that is, the prevention and correction of speech defects. Ignorance 
of this subject is appalling among those who have the care of chil- 
dren. T^his is due to the paucity of efficient literature. Parents 
have been compelled to depend upon misleading advice of friends 
who would suggest innumerable panaceas, the majority of which but 
serve to aggravate the condition. 

The importance of this subject has been brought to the atteutiou 
of the public lately in connection with the training of men for the 
army. It was found necessary to reject 10% of the candidates for 
commissions as officers because of poor articulation. 

The i^Dints whieli we emphasized at I lie Trainiug Camps. I am 
sure will be of interest to you. 

An officer must pos.sess a forceful, commanding voice in order to 
create the proper morale. This Avas brought to my attention, at 
Harvard, in the etTect of the voices of the various comnmnders u])on 
their men and the spirit in which they responded to orders when 
drilling. Strong, rotund, well delivered commands i>roduccd a fast 
response, while a jioor delivery evoked only labored actions. So it 
is with all of us in our daily concourse, it Avill be found that a clear 
voice, the ability to deliver words so that they can be easily under- 
stood, will inspire our auditors ■with a better feeling toward us — 
and a better understanding. Business men recognize that voice is 
an economic asset and many corporations refuse to employ those 
suffering from a defect of it. 

It is necessary that a soldier have a i)ioper development of the 
vocal chords in order to save his voice when compelled to speak 
amid the roar and din of the battlefields. This is a point upon 
which I have been lecturing to school teachers, and one which you 
would appreciate if you were to come to the Board of Education on 



58 

1113' office days or to one of our s^wiech (.linics aiul there see the njim- 
ber of teachers and pupils who sntfer from aphonia because they have 
never proi»er]y developed their vocal chords. I shall later dwell 
upon this phase of the work. 

The, third reason for better speech in the soldier treats the matter 
from a new viewpoint. Men with well developed speech centres are 
less liable lo hiliell Shock. The conclusion has been reached that if 
we develop good strong centres in the brain for speech, we will 
increase the [nnver and capacity of the other associated cortical 
areas. Man is ditferentiated from the lower animals by his ability 
to speak. Speech is the last centre developed in the evolution of the 
brain and the first faculty lost when we sutler shock in any form. 
It acts as a keystone to the arch of the brain. This theory was 
applied in our army work ; and in the development of the soldier, 
it was deemed necessary to strengthen the speech centres in order 
to remove the tendeucj' to neurasthenia. We have a Unit at Cape 
May for the treatment of soldiers who have lost their speech through 
Shell Shock. It has been found that men with good strong voices 
and well developed speech centres were less liable to suffer the ill 
effects of Shell Shock. This principle of the development of the 
speech centre as the keystone or binding link of the other areas of 
the brain also applies to the training of the child. If in j'outh we 
have a pro])er development of this centre, it will help in the proper 
training of the other associated brain areas such as hearing, 
memory, color and form. 

The note of paramount importance which we are trying to impress 
upon the social mind is that of general speech improvenumt and the 
prevention of defectvS. In drawing a resume of statistics, it has been 
])roven that most speech defects arise during the school age — that 
is between the years of five and nine. They occur after the child 
has entered school. There are a great many psychological reasons 
for this. I do not attribute the fault to the teacher but to the cur- 
riculum which has neglected to allot sufficient time to this most 
important subject. 

We should develop better voices. You can develop good voice 
production in almost any child unless there is an organic defect 
or some lesion in the brain. The simplest mode to follow is the 
daily practice of vocal gymnastics, which will exercise the muscles 
controlling the vocal chords. If these are brought into play, con- 
tinually and sufficiently, you will produce the proper voice and a 
speech which, can be heard. The exercises are built upon the six 
fundamental sounds: A fas in father), A (as in ate), E (as in eat), 
AW (as in awning l, <) (as in OH) and 00 (as in food). A manual 
of exercises built upon these sounds may be obtained by application 
to the Department of Speech Improvement, Board of Education, 
New York, 



54 

In the production of audible speech, it must be remembered that 
it is* necessary to properly deliver the vowels. When we bring out 
the vowels we make our words carry. This is a point I give to 
public speakers and teachers. At the close of the day, when the 
teacher is tired, the tendency is to tighten the muscles of the face, 
to close the teeth, to raise the pitch and to force out the words. At 
such a time, if one will think of the vowels (opening the mouth to 
let them carry) and lower the pitch, the effect upon the class will 
be noticeable and the expenditure of nerve power be diminished one- 
third. THE VOWELS OR OPEN— MOUTH SOUNDS ARE THE 
VEHICLES OF OUR SPEECH. For example, take the word 
"vowel." If I say to you "vow-el" you can distinguish the word at 
a great distance. But if I mouth the vowels (no matter how great 
the breath force expended), by the time the word reaches the rear 
of the audience, it might be interpreted as "owl,'* "foul" or many 
other analogous words. 

Cliildren in the lower grades who are permitted to continue day 
by day, the practice of faulty articulation and mumbled speech, grad- 
ually develop defects which manifest themselves in the competition 
of later grades. To this add the complexities arising from speech 
conflict consequent upon difficult studies and we have our major 
disorders. Correct liaMts of articulation and enunciation are hosed 
upon scientific principles of production. With daily practice and 
application of vocal gymnastics and phonic drills, the teacher can 
soon produce a proper vowel resonance, a clear enunciation and dis- 
tinct pronunciation. Spoken language is the result of a process of 
imitation. The only way in which the pupil can attain a faultless 
enunciation is for the teacher to constitute herself a model from 
which he must pattern his speech. The proper development of 
voice — and the speech organs— should precede reading because of 
the mental conflict in the visualization of his tlioughts. Stammer- 
ing very often finds its inception in the schools in the pernicious 
practice of forcing children to articulate words before the areas 
controlling voice have been properly developed. The brain centres 
for the production of speech very often do not keep pace with the 
centres where we form the mental images of words or of written 
language. The result is that the child will think faster than he can 
s;)eak. speech conflict will ensue and stammering be engendered. 

(xreat progress has been made in solving the functional difficulties 
of the voice. These defects we have divided into five major classi- 
fications—each of which I shall briefly describe. 

The classification of speech defects are the following: (1) Stam- 
mering and Stuttering. (2) Lisping. (3) Lalling and Cognate 
Defeds, (4 1 Defective Phonatiou and (5) Foreign Accent. 



Stammeriny and Stutterim/ 

More noticeable in its manifestations than other defects, because 
of its many acute phases is stammering. Those suffering with this 
defect are probably the most neglected class of afiiicted human beings 
in the world, having received until lately but little attention from 
either the j»edagogic or medical profession. 

Stammering, according to its universally accepted meaning in 
English, is a halting, defective utterance. The sufferer has diflBculty 
in starting a word or in passing from one letter to another. It is 
a momentarA^ lack of control of the muscles of articulation in the 
effort to speak. Often the stammerer will come to an absolute halt, 
being unable to produce voice. The defect is sometimes accom- 
panied by irregular spasmodic movements of the organs of the body, 
often terminating in a partial or serious derangement of the articu- 
late speech. One form of stammering is commonly known as stut- 
tering. It is the unnecessary repetition of a letter or a word before 
passing to the next — as, '*d-d-dog," or ''they-t-they-they went out." 

For the lack of time I am forced to epitomize my remarks upon 
this subject of defects. 1 would refer those eager for an exposition of 
the subject to my article in School Health News, of February, 1019 
(Department of Health. City of New York). 

The cure of stammering is at once complex and delicate. The 
slightest mistake may interfere with an effective treatment. There 
must be developed an equilibrium of emotions, a precision of thought 
and a new liabit of .speaking. The instructor must make a psycho- 
logical study of every ca.se — treating each as a jtersonal equation. 
He must induce an attitude of mind, on the. part of the sufferer, 
which will increase determination and confidence. The habit of 
stammering is, in itself, sufficient to derange the nerve mechanism, 
ju-oducing a lack of confidence and excessive inhibition. The result 
is timidity and mental retardation. Stammerijig is abnormal and 
conti-ary to the proper functioning of the organs of the body often 
terminating in a partial or serious derangement of the nervous 
system which can only be corrected by removing the cause — stam- 
mering. 

The stammerer is inharmonious in his being. We must vitalize 
and harmonize his three elements — mind, body and voice. There is 
an inability to respond to stimuli because of his imperfect coordina- 
tion. This sluggishness must be eliminated by quick, snappy 
response in all gymnastics whether mental, physical or vocal. He 
ninst acquire control of his speech mechanism. That is a physio- 
logical (Mire jnst as control of his thought mechanism is psycholog- 
ical. 



56 

It is not by the laying of a cornerstone that a building is com- 
pleted but rather by the careful placing of one stone upon another. 
So must constant exercise be given to the stammerer until the larynx 
function normally and the auditory images become fixed. We might 
summarize such exercises by placing them in six groups: (1) The 
development of a proper production of consonants and a fast respon- 
sive blending of initial consonants with the accompanying vowels ; 
(2) Syllabication; (3) Tongue and Vocal Gymnastics; (4) Silent 
reading for the study of production and phraseology; (5) Reading 
aloud before mirrors, to experience visualization as well as new 
auditory sensation; (6) Conversation while under the control of 
suggestion. 

The fallac}^ of the following methods must be studiously avoided: 
(1) Silence treatments; (2) Breath control; (3) Unusual intonation 
of voice; (4) Use of synonyms for words that are feared; (5) Rhyth- 
mic movements of hands or feet when speaking — and in general, 
anything unnatural which will but serve to make a stammerer feel 
that he is atypical. 

' I would like to impress upon ^ill the fact that the advice given is 
generic and must be modified to serve individuals. Every case must 
be regarded as 'a personal problem, for as brains differ, in their 
thoughts, their reasoning power, their association of ideas, so the 
defects of speech arising in brains, manifest different reflexes which 
one must learn to detect per se. Many unnatural mental disturbances 
enter into the personal equation with which we have to deal. There- 
fore, when correcting a case, while we are removing the causes men- 
tioned above, such as juxtaposition of the organs, over-innervation, 
rigidity, etc., it is vitally essential that we lead the sulfcror inlo ur^v 
channels of thought, new associations of ideas and a different sid)- 
conscious control of stimuli. 

Lisping 

Lisping is an imperfect production of silibant sounds. A common 
form of this defect is the protruding of the tongue (lingual pro- 
trusion) when giving the "s'' sound, saying "thith for "this" or 
"thithter" for "sister." This is merely a habit and is corrected by 
rigid supervision on the part of the instructor. The lisper must be 
taught to discipline his unruly tongue. A system of tongue gym- 
nastics and a manual of lessons are employed with such cases when 
referred to our special clinics. 

Most cases of lisping find their inception during the period of 
dentition. This must be corrected when the second teeth cctme in 
by insisting upon an imitation of correct production, with the teacher 
or parent as a model. 



St 

Lulling and Cognate Defects 

Lulling as the word implies, signifies an acute sluggishness of the 
lingual muscles when speaking. This defect is rare in the high scho«l 
but commonly encountered in the elementary grades, especially among 
mentally defective children. Many of the cases of lalling are given 
the misnomer, "tongue-tied." However, out of an average hiMidi'ed 
cases brought to me as "tongue-tied," I find that but one really is. 
This defect is caused by a lack of co-ordination of the muscles of the 
tongue and is corrected by tongue gymnastics and the development 
of a faster response to stimuli. 

As.sociated with lalling we find many defects such as nasality and 
nasal twang. Nasality is the emission of too much sound through 
the nose. Yo.u will find, as a rule, that this has been caused by hyper- 
trophied tonsils. It may, in exceptional cases, be directly due to a 
paralysis of the palate but usually is simply the result of improper 
usage of the ])alate, which is corrected by stimulation and the exercise 
of raising and loweiing llie uvula, as employed in the Tongue Gym- 
nastics. Nasal twang is the omission of all the sound through the 
mouth. In order to have perfect speech the fundamental sounds 
should issue from the mouth but these must be reenforced by the 
resonance of the nasal cavities. The child with adenoid growths. 
(leMected seijtum oi' any interference in the nasal passages, will not 
be able to use these difi'erent sounding boards and the result is a 
nasal twang. In such cases lie or she should be referred directly to 
a s])ecialist. 

JJcjective Phonation 

Defective i)h()na1i()U is the improper production of sounds due to 
slovenly speech and the lack of sufficient training in the proper 
phonic values. We hear "dat" for ''that," "lidle" for ''little,'' "could- 
jer" for "could you" and "Witch is Fit Avnoo?" instead of "Which 
is Fifth Avenue?" There is no organic cause for this. It is merely 
a habit, which may be easily corrected by drawing the child's atten- 
tion to his imperfect production of these sounds. In most cases it 
is the result of environment. He does not properly visualize his 
words nor is the auditory sense properly developed. It is analygous 
to his poor spelling. The production of better articulation in speech 
will develop better spelling. 

Foreign Accent 

This is the largest class with Avhich we have to deal in the public 
schools of our great city. It is the proper understanding of effectual 
methods for the elimination of this form of speech, which will be 
a big factor in the present National Movement for the Americaniza- 
tion of the Foreigner. Continued use of the mother tongue causes 
a foreign articulation of the organs of speech and a different auditory 



56 

conception of the vowel sounds. In developing a better habit of 
speech in these foreigners, Vv'e must always bear in mind sound pro- 
^luction and tone variation. 

From careful study, I liave divided foreign accent into three classes: 
(1) The giving of improper or false value to our vowels, for example, 
"Harry" pronounced as though it were spelled ''Hairy," "Morris" as 
"Mawruss," "out as "aout," "peach" as "pitch" and "apple" as "ep- 
ple;" (2) Placing stress on the wrong syllable, as "cha rac' ter" in- 
stead of "char' ac ter," "pi an o'" for " pi an' o" and "or gan' i za tion" 
for "or gan i za' tion;" (3) The rising inflection at the end of sen- 
tences. 

These various forms of foreign accent are corrected by developing 
a proper production of the vowel sounds, a study of the phonic ele- 
ments and by a rehabilitation of pitch. 1 have prepared a syllabus 
on the subject which is now used in our public schools and may be 
obtained upon application to tlie Department of Speech Improvement, 
157 East 67th Street, New York. 

Before I leave you, I would like to show an interesting case of 
auditory aphasia. This girl was pronounced deaf and has therefore 
never developed the thought of speech. She was referred to us by the 
Red Cross and after a month of sense training we have developed her 
auditory centres. Words now begin to have a meaning in her life. 
In her case there is no organic defect but a vocabulary will have to 
be developed so that she can interpret all messages. 

The College of the City of New York conducts a Summer Clinic 
and Course where those interested from any part of the country 
may receive the necessary training to qualify them to become special- 
ists in the field of correcting speech defects and general speech im- 
provement. The methods taught are those employed in the public 
schools of New York City and adopted by the U. S. Army in its Base 
Hospitals for the correction of 8])eorh defects in soldiers suffering 
from Shell Shock or injuries. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER SPEECH IN CHILDREN 



HELEN M. PEPPARD, Supvrvi^or of Clinics for Hprcch Defects, 
College of City of New York 



Too much cannot be said about the influence of environment upon 
the speech of our school children. Children are natural born imi- 
tators ; it is through this facultj^ of imitation that speech is learned. 
Roger Ascham, the noted English scholar, said, "All languages are 
begotten and gotten solely by imitation. For as ye are use to hear, 



59 

so ye learn to speak.'' We luiust reineuiher tUat speech is ind a:i 
inheritauce but an acquired faculty developed through imitatiou. 
We cau, therefore, understand what a tremendous amount of harm 
can be done by association with and imitation of a foreign born 
parent speaking with a foreign accent or a teacher who enunciates 
in a slovenly manner. 

In our modern system of education, ujifortunately, a child spends 
the majority of his time developing the visual sense, due no doubt, 
to the old fashioned idea that quiet means discipline. Speech is a 
natural and primal method of expression. What are we doing to 
develop this speech ? What are we doing to develop the kinaesthetic 
sense which is the corner stone of speech? There is an old but er- 
roneous saying, ''Children talk too much !" Rather let us evolve a 
new slogan, "Children cannot talk too much 1" 

I>r. Frederick Martin has shown in his work with "shell shocked" 
soldiers that where you can develop the speech faculty, you secure 
an easier co-ordination of the other cranial areas. This same theory 
siiould bo ai)])lied in Ihe education of the ditferent faculties of chil- 
dren fi'om their reception into the kindergarten. 

"The child should have the proper production of speech before at- 
tempting to read," says Dr. Martin. If we study this deeply we will 
all agree with him. The speech centre should be well developed in 
the child before giving him the difficult task of reading. This should 
he done to prevent Speech Conflict arising over the difficulty of co- 
onlinating the centres which interpret the content of idea of a 
sentence atid those concerned in the production of voice; also, for 
the reason, that there is a vast difference in the phonic interpretation 
of identical groups of letters in the various languages or in the same 
tiHigue. 

i made the statement that speech is taught through imitation, I 
will modify that by saying that speech is taught through imitation 
as far as possible and that imitation plays a big factor in its de- 
velopment. However, we have all found in our experience, children 
who cannot produce sounds through .either direct or indirect imi- 
tation. It is here that the study of the speech mechanism plays an 
important part. It is absolutely necessary in these cases to teach 
mechanically the correct position of the vocal organs for various 
sounds. A large percentage of Stammering is due to the lack of 
knowledge of the exact position of sounds. Dr. Martin, therefore, 
has arranged a regular system of exercises to be used in all classes 
of the public schools of New York City. Their aim is to develop 
better voices and prevent speech defects as well as to eradicate any 
existing defects. The following is a brief outline of these exercises : 

Breathing exercises done responsively ; 

Corrective exercises done vigorously and responsively; 



60 

Tongue gynuiastics practiced before mirrors to secure better 
co-ordination of the lingual muscles arid a fast response to 
stimuli ; 

Vocal gymnastics aid to secure: 

Voice support or proper lung poAver. 
Development of the vocal organs. 
Correct sound ])roduction and tone ])lacem{'ut. 
A full, rotund, open-month delivery. 

These exercises should be practiced standing. The combinations 
(aha, ahaee, etc.) should be given on (me breath as though each gr-.tup 
formed a word. 

(Note: The a used in these exercises is that in tliH vrord make, t 

ah, a, ee, oh, oo 

aha, aee, eeaw, awoli, ohoo 

ahaee, aeeaw, eeawoli, awohoo 

ahaeeaw, aeeawoh, eeavvolioo 

ahaeeawoh, aeeawohoo 

ahaeeawohoo, aeeawohoo 

ooohaweeah. 



(3) EN(iLlSH 1\ THE J (JNIOK IlKiH SCHOOl. 



TnOS. ][. BKIGGS, Cnltniihia r'nivrrsilij 



A. General purposes of the jrmior high school are conceived as: 

1. To explore by means of material in itself worth while the inter- 
ests, aptitudes, and capacities of the pupils, and to reveal to them the 
possibilities in the major fields of learning. 

2. To teach pupils to do better the desirable activities that they 
will do anyway. 

3. To reveal higher types of activities and at the same time to 
make them both desired and to an extent possible. 

4. To integrate society by teaching a common body of knowledge 
and ideals, and to differentiate education for individuals according 
to probable needs. 

B. Literature 

1. The worth of a piece of literature to an individual is proved 
by the extent to which it elicits from him a satisfying emotional 
response. The success, therefore, of the selection and teaching of any 
piece of literature may be measured by the extent to which pupils 
desire more of the same kind. The school must begin'on the pupil's 
aesthetic level, however low that may be, and build up gradually. 



<3l 

2. The junior high school must not neglect current books and maga- 
zines. It should be particularly concerned to develop the power of 
discrimination between the varying degrees of good material and to 
leach good habits of silent reading. 

3. Worthy literature should be taught so as to contribute even 
more than aesthetic appreciation. It should give to pupils 

a. variet}' and breadth of lite bj- means of vicarious ex- 
periences ; 

b. interpretation of various phenomena of life, both subject- 
ive and external ; 

c. preparation for probable futnre expiM-iences by ideals and 
, attitudes. 

Kecoramendation of cycles centering on dcsiied ideals — e. g., of 
heroism, friendshij), loytilty, j);itriotism, etc. 

4. The stndy of literatnre should be for the most part extensive, 
with occasioiml intensive analyses of sliort classics; better the one 
(iominant point from twenty masterpieces lh;iii iifly points from 
one. The extensive plan of study should 

a. build up a bod^' of integrating common knowledge and 
ideals ; 

b. teach young people to do better the kind of reading that 
they are likely to do later; 

c. reveal a wide field from which selections may be intelli- 
gentlj'^ made later; 

d. result in a background for future more specialized study. 

5. If the pupils have not already learned, the junior high school 
should give them systematic instruction in silent reading, that they 
may read rapidly with definite purpose evaluating, organizing, and 
supplementing the material for a worthy end. 

6. The school should make possible oral expression, with provi- 
sions for definite improvements where needed, in dramatic work and 
in purposeful reading of units considerably longer than now ordi- 
narily used. 

C. Composition 

1. All composition, both oral and written, should have a motive that 
seems worthy to the pupils. 

2. Composition is best taught by problems rather than by assign- 
ments of isolated and unmeaningful fragments of a logical organiza- 
tion. The four fonnal tyi»cs of discourse arc impoitant only as a 
means to an end. 

3. Subjects Should be drawn chiefly from the pui)ils' experiences 
and interests outside the English class. The other fields of school 
work should be drawn on frequently, partly to secure good subject- 
matter, partly to improve expression there, and partly to emphasize 
the idea that good English is of general worth. 



62 

4. Besides an impelling motive, each composition should be de- 
veloped to improve some definite form on rhetorical principle. 

5. Emphasis shoul<l be laid on the larger virtues of sincerity, sim- 
plicity and clearness, accuracy, interest, etc. 

6. Details of form are best considered in situ when needs arise. 
However, to assure consideration of snch matters as are considered 
necessary for all pupils, forms — spelling, jjunctuation, capitalization, 
and the like — should be systematically distributed throughout the 
course, a few taken at every lesson. 

7. The most fundamental matters of form should receive such thor- 
ough and repeated drill — in situ when possible — as to stamp them in 
thoroughly. 

8. The elements of grammar useful in preventing or correcting 
errors in English should be taught in such a way as to make their 
maximum contribution to effective expression. 

a. The junior liigh school is not the place for presenting a 
systematic and elaborate organization of the facts of language 
in general. 

b. The responsibility for teaching elements of grammar use- 
ful only to foreign languages does not rest on the English 
teacher. 

9. Emphasis should be laid on oral as well as on written compo- 
sition. 

10. Pupils should receive systematic instruction in the use of the 
reference library. 

11. Socialized forms of work should be extensively used. This in- 
cludes occasional co-operative preparation, motivated presentation 
of material in the class, and mutual criticism both before and after 
the formal recitation. 



SUBJECT: EXTENSION VALUES IN ENGLISH 

HOW CAN INSTRUCTION IN OTHER SUBJECTS CONTRIBUTE 
TO THE IMPROVEMENT OP THE PUPILS' ENGLISH 



JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, Ph. M., Chicago Normal College 



Abstract of Address, 
lu order that the work in other subjects may support the teaching 
of English it is necessary first of all that there shall be an agreement 
as to what is meant by English. The term is now used to^ cover a 
great variety of activities, all of which may, however, be grouped 
under two heads, namely, practical English and literary English. 
The former aims mainly to develop the power of correct and effective 
expression in speech and writing for the purposes of everj^day life. 
As complemental and hardly less important are the aims of training 



63 

pupils to gain exact information from books and to do this with 
reasonable speed and effectivenetes. Literary English, on the other 
hand, is directed toward the enjoyment of leisure. This does not 
mean that it is unserious but merely that it is ditterent. One does 
not read poetry or a novel for the same, reason that he writes a 
business letter. The study of stories, poetry, plaj^s, and essays, then, 
should be regarded as valuable primarily in so far as it awakens in 
the students permanent interest* in good books and establishes 
right habits of using them. 

The lirst step, then, in bringing about co-operation of all depart- 
uients in the teaching of English is to ditferentiate clearly between 
the practical course in the subject and the literary course. Listening, 
speaking, reading, and writing English as well as the appropriate 
mental activities of thinking, ijuagining, and the like should go on 
in both of them. Material for stmly, however, should be chosen with 
reference to dilfej'ent aims and it should be handled by different 
methods. iSuch a plan of organization will meet the criticism often 
justly expressed that what the teachers of English are doing has 
little or no connection with what the other teachers are doing and 
that therefore other teachers cannot justly be called upon for assis- 
tance. 

As a matter of fact, once practical English is properly defined, it 
becomes evident to all that it is something with which the teacher 
of history and the teacher of science are as much concerned as the 
teacher of English herself. Straight thinking and clear and forceful 
expression are as necessary in the study of history and of science 
as in the study of any other object. W.e think in words and we 
communicate in words. Any weakness in control of words is vital 
in any aspect of school work, to say nothing of the life outside. 

When the matter is put in this way, the teachers of all subjects 
will readily admit their interest and their obligation, but they will 
at once inquire how they are to help; certainly not by attempting 
systematic instruction in either speaking, writing, or reading. Sys- 
tematic instruction in those activities is the peculiar task of the 
trained expert, the teacher of English. But the teachers of other 
subjects can and should share with the teacher of English in cherish- 
ing the definite aims which have been set up for the work in practical 
English, should know what is being taught in the English class, and 
should encourage and require their pupils to use in other classes 
everything which they have learned in the way of methods of expres- 
sion and of using books. They should hold to the same standards 
of correctness and to the same careful preparation for expression in 
class. 

This is necessary and it is reasonable. Unless uniform pressure is 
brought to bear upon the pupils all along the line any attempt at 
inform on the part of the English teacher will be futile. This is 



64 

so well-known as not to need discussion. It is not, however, so 
clearly recognized that the preparation of a history lesson, for ex- 
ample, should proceed along the lines of preparation for oral composi- 
tion. There should be the same careful gathering of material with 
reference to a specific end,'the same intelligent organization, and the 
same care to give full, clear, and forceful expression. When the 
assignment in history, for example, is' in the nature of a problem 
to be solved and calls for something more than mere memorizing of 
a text, methods in the use of English become at once of first im- 
portance. 

It appears, then, that by suitable delimitation of the field, develop- 
ment of an adequate common understanding, and the use of modern 
methods of instruction, the work in all classes can be made really 
a training in the use of English. Obviously the emphasis will not 
fall upon mere nagging with regard to certain errors in grammar, 
but will have reference rather to such basic matters as clear and 
logical thinking, satisfactory expression in complete sentences ar- 
ranged in logical sequence, and in the use of such illustrations as 
give force and clearness. Such a doctrine should be set forth by the 
principal of each school, upon whom devolves the responsibility for 
taking the initiative in the matter of co-operation in English and in 
arranging for such conferences and other supervisoi-y devices as will 
enable his teachers to make the work in English effective through 
intelligent team work. 



(1) USING THE NEWSPAPER AND THE MAGAZINE IN THE 

ENGLISH CLASS 



JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, Ph. M., Chicago Normal College 



Abstract of Address. 

There is little need to advocate at this time the use of newspapers 
and magazines in high school classes in English. Three or four of 
the popular weekly and monthly magazines ju'e engaged in cam- 
paigns of advertising which are sure to result in a sufficient em- 
phasis upon the use of periodicals in the schools. What is needed 
is not so much propaganda as a careful analysis of aims an^ i)ossi- 
bilities. The periodical is not in itself a panacea. In the hands 
of the indiscreet it may be something approaching a nuisance. 

The present tendencies as judged by the reports so far published 
are surely not altogether in the right djrection. If we may believe 
the testimonials published by the circulation managers of the period- 



on 

icals themselves, the most common use of magazines in the English 
class is to provide the subject matter for oral and written composi- 
tion. This seems to be in no way an improvement upon the situation 
so common a few 3'ears ago in which the English classics were drawn 
upon almost exclusively for the ideas to be expressed in high school 
composition. The most that can be said is that the writing found 
in current magazines is perhaps more nearly like' the style which 
students nowadays should aim to acquire than that found in such 
classics as the so-called "Essays of Macaulay." 

If each student had the privelege of presenting to the class items 
of news or of general information not familiar to the others, the ])ro- 
cedure would be commendable. Tlie common practice, however, seems 
to be to hare all mend)ers of the class buy the same issue of the same 
magazine and discuss it in class. This does, of course, give oppor- 
tunity for conversation and perhaps for occasional organized debates. 
Ft does not, on the other liaud piovide the opportunity for gathering 
ideas directly from exjiericnue and giving to lliem original organiza- 
tion and expression. Yet this is precisel.y the real task of composi- 
tion. Paraphrasing and com])iling are editorial functions and are 
not commonly needed. Except as an interest in certain phases of 
life may be aroused by the heading and thus lead on to investigation 
and ultimately to the preparation of com])ositions laying some claim 
to originality, the magazine should not be drawn upon to any great 
extent for the subject matter of speaking and writing. 

There remain, however, two important services which the periodical 
may perform in school. The first is that of supplying suggestive 
examples of contemporary English. What the writers in the periodi- 
cals do is in part what the })upils in school wish to learn to do. If, 
then, the pupils will first try their hands at expressing their own 
experience and will afterward turn, under the guidance of the teacher, 
to the examination of the methods employed by the writers in periodi- 
cals, they may learn much about how to improve their own expression. 
A suitable sequence is as follows: First, a situation providing the 
opportunity and motive for communication in speech or in writing; 
second, the development by the pupil of his own individual specific 
purpose; third, his formulating this as a project requiring the gath- 
ering of material and the organization and expression of it ; fourth, 
presentation to the class, with definite criticism by members of the 
class and the teaching, looking to improvement ; fifth, the writing out 
of what has been said in the form of a first draft of a written compo- 
sition ; sixth, the reading in some current periodical of examples of the 
type of composition which the members of the class have been attempt- 
ing. This should be a class exercise and should lead to definite sug- 
gestions, made, as far as possible, by the pupils themselves, as to how 
their methods may be improved through the employment of the 

5 



6() 

methods used by the skilled writer under discussion. Finally will 
come the revision for publication before the class of the first draft 
which has been for some time laid away. Such a procedure reduces 
the labor of the teacher to a minimum and gives the pupil the largest 
possible opportunity for self-help. 

The second and perhaps greater function of the periodical in school 
is to train the students in the use of current literature. Xo other 
phenomenon of American life is more striking today than the almost 
universal habit of reading newspapers and other periodicals. Un- 
fortunately these are not read, for the most part, with a great amount 
of discrimination. Metropolitan newspapers are often quoted seri- 
ously as though the report of the news of the day could be accepted 
without reservation. Comparison, however, of one paper with another 
or of the columns of a single paper on different days would reveal 
instantlj^ how little dependence can be }>laced upon the unclassified 
mass of sensations provided from day to day in the press. The 
weekly and monthly magazines are, of course, much more depend- 
able. Nowhere, however, can the reader surrender the right to the 
exercise of cool judgment for comparisons of opinions and sources. 
Pupils should be taught to read periodicals with discrimination. 

They should also be taught to read them with economy. It requires 
both skill and self-control to dispose of the morning paper with thor- 
oughness and suitable dispatch. The temptation to read on and on 
because of the seductive style employed is very great. One speaker 
has recentl}'^ referred to the process as "taking one's daily dope." 
It is indeed often little better than a drug habit. A sane, conservative 
practice, then, should be developed — a practice while not discarding 
the daily paper, does not permit it to become a master or to occupy 
more than a legitimate portion of one's time. 

In the case of the weekly and monthly magazines there are the 
complemental problems of the selection of the magazine and also the 
selection of what shall be read in it. To these should be added the 
third problem of how to read an article so as to get the main points 
and to remember them. The fact is that at present the almost uni- 
versal practice seems to be to read the magazine for pastime. Some 
of them certainly should be read for this purpose, but others should 
be read for the stimulation of serious thought and for the acquisition 
of worth while information. This requires analyvsis and memory. It 
requires concentration and it requires reasoning and judgment. At 
present these are but slightly exercised. 

The crowning task of the teacher of periodicals in school is to 
train pupils to read. This means training in what to read and in how 
to read it. The use of periodicals will probably increase rather thar 
decrease. Their influence is at })resent beyond all measurement and 
growing. Let the English teacher, therefore, rise to his opportunity 



67 

and train young people in the grammar grades and the high schools 
to select and use current literature with intelligence and discrimina- 
tion. The future of the republic depends to a verj' large extent upon 
his doing so. 



(2) TEACHING PATRIOTISM IN ENGLISH CLASSES IN THE 

HIGH SCHOOL 



J. D. MA HONEY, West Pliiladelpliia High School for Boys 



Abstract of Address. 

Before discussing the teaching of "Patriotism" it is really neces- 
sary to liave some definition of the word itself agreed upon. It 
would seem to me that, no matter what the final manifestation of 
patriotic ideals may be in either sentiment or action, it may be 
asserted that the basis of patriotism lies in a sincere love for those 
who, with us, make up our nation and live in our country. 

This naturally leads to the constant desire to have all of us live 
well and truly as individuals, and to have us deal collectively as a 
nation in an honorable and truthful way with our neighbor nations. 

In order that any citizen nuiy exercise patriotism to the advantage 
of his country, it is necessary that he shall have: first, a genuine 
feeling of regard and charity for his fellow men ; second, a sufficient 
knowledge of facts to form a basis for judging what ideas, proposi- 
tions and courses of action he should support ; and third, a sufficient 
training in the ability to think logically in order that he may be able 
to judge intelligently upon such a basis of known facts. 

In aiming at having pupils in the high school acquire these three 
qualities so necessary for enlightened patriotism, the English class 
undoubtedly may play an important part. 

First. By the reading of good literature in which is embodied the 
spirit of love of country and in which is inculcated the principles 
of broad human charity and good will to his fellows, the pupil will 
develop the basic and impelling sentiment. T^vo things should be 
avoided in the clioire and conduct of such reading. We shoidd shun 
all literature wiiich is narrow and intolerant in character and which 
tends to breed allegiance to one's own country by means of building 
up hostility towards and suspicion of neighboring peoples. The atti- 
I; tude of the German people in our recent great war should teach the 
danger of such schooling if it teaches anything. Reading also should 
not be forced and made artificial by constant explanation and an- 
alysis. It should be "reading" not "study." Literature cannot be 
studied by high school pupils — at least not without ruining literature. 



68 

Second. The leadiug of all literature and the discussion of all 
subjects in the P]nglish class room, by choice of material and conduct 
of class, should aim at having the student constantly desire and seek 
to know the truth about all things. The chief means of developing 
this seeking for truth, however, is in the lield of composition and 
rhetoric. The ability to understand that a sentence is a logical 
statement which must hold water is the true beginning of an educa- 
tion which will withstand illogical and falsely emotional propaganda. 
The constant drill in vocabulary, entailing the knowledge of what a 
word means and the ability to define its meaning in a way that 
really defines will lay a basis of truth-seeking that will last through 
life. 

Third. The training in English composition should seek to have 
the student draw sensible conclusions from known facts. It is in 
advanced compositioji involving Ihe essa}' in written work and the 
debate in oral Englisli, that this way be \^'(u•ke<l out most advanta- 
geously. The ability to assc^mblc reliable facts, to valnc Iheni )U"o])or- 
tionately, and to draw from them logical conclusions, is what essay 
writing and debate in high school English should aim at producing- — 
if they have any justifiable aim at all. It would seem to me that if 
the English class made these three aims a part of its work, it might 
do a service second to none in teaching patriotism. It is evident, how- 
ever, that the whole efiect may easily be injured, even frustrated, 
by any constant stating of these aims to the pupils themselves. Senti- 
ment that does not grow naturally through that upon which it feeds 
is likely to be artificial, and constant preaching of patriotic "aims" 
to children may produce cant instead of patrioti.sni . The same is 
true concerning composition work. Constant prating about a logical 
goal will not accomplish so much as exercise in locomotion towards 
it. Besides all this, it is doubtful whether the revelation of the 
wheels of method to the juvenile or adolescent pupil ever did much 
good ; and it is equally doubtful whether results are accomplished 
by reference to ultimate aims rather than by concentration upon 
immediate objects. 

In conclusion, I feel strongly that it is of the utmost importance 
that the teacher himself must qualify for this kind of patriotism 
before there is any chance of the pupil's developing the spirit of 
humanity and good will which must be the basis of the whole idea. 
It is even possible that a teacher who honestly and devotedly feels 
this spirit but who has little method or ability may do much more 
in teaching real patriotism than he who follows every principle with 
intelligence and skill but who does not "love his country and his 
fellows in liis lioart." 



GENERAL SCIENCE 



(60) 



m 



(70) 



AIMS AND PURPOSES OF GENERAL SCIENCE 



BERTHA MAY CLARK, William Peiin High School, Philadelphia 



The emphasis of Greneral Science should be put upon ways by which 
desirable changes in nature can be brought about, ways by which 
environment can be made to yield more material and hence more 
freedom for all. The average farmer plows, harrows, plants and 
cultivates about one-third of his corn acreage without return (Bailey 
— Cyclopedia of Agriculture). Time, strength, crops wasted. Why 
not emphasize the need of three-thirds efficiency? Fourteen ears 
of corn are needed to seed one acre. IJ but one ear of seed corn 
be poorly selected, one-fourteenth of the crop is wasted. How iin- 
portant then to euij)hasize seed selection. If improvement of crops 
by selection be presented why not improvement of the race by selec- 
tion? "It is within the power of men to cause all parasitic diseases 
to disappear from the earth," Pasteur. Why not begin on the physical 
improvement of the race? Again the emphasis should be put upon 
ways in which undesirable changes can be prevented; such as en- 
croachment upon land of ocean as along the Jersey coast. Fire pre- 
vention, loss by fire of forest trees, homes, food supplies, etc. The 
chief terror of the sea in the past has been collision in fog; for 
decades and for centuries we have needlessly allowed ships to go 
down year by year simply because we have not realized the possi- 
bilities of prevention through organized research. Out of the anti- 
submarine efforts of scientists has grown a device by which it is 
possible to eliminate the dangers of fogs. The preventing of a single 
disaster like the sinking of the Titanic or of the Empress of Ireland 
more than pays, without reference to the value of human lives, for 
all the time and money spent by England, France and United States 
combined in developing detecting devices." Millikan — Science, Sept. 
26, 1919. No attempt should be made in General Science, or in any 
first or second year High School Science to train pupils for technical 
work; far greater good will have been achieved if the pupils get a 
conception of the worth of human life and the value of scientific 
research, and the vital need of public support of research labora- 
tories. 

But an understanding of soil fertility and rotation of crops, for 
example, is not worth while unless bound up with it, is the conscious 
and subconscious purpose of increased production, for the sake of 
fellow workers. To knoAV, for another example, how to prepaie tasty 

( 71 ) 



72 

nourishing food, to select warm clothing, to proviae comfortable 
shelter, to maintain healthy bodies should be but a secondary result 
of General Science teaching, the main result should be a glimmering, 
however faint and fleeting, that these things are milestones in man's 
conquest of environment, in man's emancipation from material fetters, 
and hence milestones in man's willingness and eagerness to recognize 
and to work for liberty, equality and fraternity for all. 

The tirst task to which General Science sets itself is to acquaint 
a i^upil with his environment, immediate or remote, so that he recog- 
nizes its wide and varied influence upon himself (each is affected by 
every move made by every one else. If this were not true, our boys 
would not be lying dead "'on Flanders field"), and his possible con- 
structive purposeful reaction upon it; to make part and parcel of 
him the knowledge that human needs and desires in an ever increasing 
world can be satisfied only by scientific use of materials, and by 
filching new secrets from Nature; to keep continually before him the 
fact that the folkways and the customs of peoples are generally ele- 
vated by the lessening of the competition of life, that is by increased 
power over environment and closer. cooperation with environmental 
factors; to make part of his subconsciousness the idea that real 
democracy can be attained and retained only when all produce as 
much as possible for all, when all consume as little as is necessary 
from the common store of the world granary and when all are guided 
in personal and public affairs by thoughts of race development, and 
not personal gratifications. Contrast sucli actions and ideals with 
those of strikers. 

If such a task be accomplished by General Science, the result will 
be unselfish action by its pupils, the world's prospective citizens. 

Unfortunately unselfish action alone does not guarantee race better- 
ment. The mother, who through supposed unselfish action, pampers 
lier child, does not improve the race, nor do social reformers, who are 
ignorant of scientific principles always further race progress. Un- 
tramnieled thinking, as well as unselfish action is essential. The 
second task of General Science is to teach by experiments in the 
laboratory how to i)rove all things in order to know what is good 
and what to hold fast to. Anything no matter how simple, that can 
be called an ex])eriment ofl"ers opportunity for keen observation, un- 
tramnieled deductions, constructive conclusions, and develops the 
scientific spirit of ''prove all things." (fireless cooker, candles, com- 
bustion, etc.) General Science because of the variety of matter pre- 
sented offers experiments on widely difl'erent subjects and of widely 
different jjrocednre and teaches a pupil how to test what is true in 
many different phases of living. By its avowed allegiance to -the 
simple, the commonplace, the practical. General Science teaches the 
scientific spirit in a manner understandable to inimature minds and 



at the same time sacrifices notliing to its fiiiulamental tenet of study, 
of envirouiueut, of relationship, of interrelationships. When General 
Science was first taught it centered around the home, the individual. 
The food eaten, the clothes worn, the water drunk, were the imjiortant 
facts, the important thoughts. Unsigned slips turned in at the end 
of the course in answer to questions as to the value of General Science 
contained such statements as 

"I am familiar with things in my home; 1 am more alert at 

home." 
"1 am interested in commonplace liappenings. I read the-1'ure 
Food labels on packages and cannot he cheated easily." 
Now that the interest of General Science has sli])ped from man as 
an individual in liome. or in school, to man as a maker of democracy, 
the answers are very dillerent to the question, ''^^'hat has General 
Science done for you?" 

"It has taught me thai things don't just happen. We can 

control them." 
'*lt has taught me that i don't do anything without it is passed 

on." 
''It has taught me that 1 can change environment and make it 

better." 
"It has taught me that 1 can make (he race healthier if I keej) 
liealthy." 
(General Science has one fundauuuital aim — to further democracy; 
it achieves the aim by emphasizing the common heritage and the 
[common scientific obligation of all: by teaching that man is the 
scientific heir of all the ages, of all those who have gone before hiui. 
and that he is an ancestor of all future ages, of all who come after 
him. The progress of democracy depends upon how we- use onr 
scientific inheritance and how we fulfill onr scientific obligations. 



AIMS AND PURPOSES OP GP:NERAL SCIENCE 



JOHN n. EISENHAUEE, Junior High .School. McKee.rport 



The prinuiry aim of a course in general science should be to ac- 
^ quaint the pupil with some of the most imj)ortant facts aiul principles 
iunderlying his welfare as an individual and as a member of society. 
The aim is not to make great scientists or to train specialists but 
to make intelligent citizens of those who otherwise might be ignorant 
and superstitious concerning everyday phenomena. 



X 74 

The aim should be therefore to go from life into the laboratory 
and then back again into life; that is, take the everyday phenomena 
into the laboratory where they may be studied and underlying prin- 
ciples found and stated and then, to gain power and skill, appl}' these 
principles to other common phenomena. This work should be made 
very definite and care should be taken to see that it is not uninter- 
esting. 

Secondary aims should be: 

1. To enable the student to choose intelligently later science courses 
and to give the necessary foundation for those courses. Not knowing 
the nature of certain courses pupils make certain elections because 
others do and not because they are really interested in them. 

2. To give the pupil a vocational survey of sciences to guide and 
inspire his life Avork. Many problems of the home and community 
will be those of the plumber, machinist, electrician, etc., and thus 
the pupil may find the line of his cho^ice and may be urged onward 
in its pursuit by his love for the study of science and his knowledge 
of its laws. 

3. To create a love for the study of science. General science should 
be presented in such a way that the student will be interested, and 
interested to such an extent that he will w^ant to read and study 
more than is required in school and will continue his reading of 
scientific material after he leaves school. 



PLACE OF GENERAL SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 

CURRICULUM 



BEN GRAHAM, Superintendent of Schools, New Castle 



In considering the place of Science in the curriculum, and par- 
ticularly General Science, it is necessary to take into consideration 
the place of all the other Sciences and the relation of General Science 
to the Sciences which usually follow it in the high school course. In 
order to determine first where General Science is placed in the course, 
it might be well to take a brief survey of some of the most recent 
programs of courses that have been prepared. 

Considering Berklej^, Grand Rapids, Jackson, and others, where 
revisions of programs have taken place because of the introduction of 
the junior high school and the intermediate school, we find the follow- 
ing: 



75 

In Berkley, General Science, under the name of Elementary House- 
hold Science, is given the ninth year two periods per week. 

^In Grand Rapids, Physical Geography is given the ninth year five 
periods per week, and is required. Elementary Science is elective in 
the same year two periods per week. 

In Jackson, General Science is offered in the seventh year for 
three periods per week ; in the eighth year Elementary Agriculture 
is given three periods per week; and in the ninth year Agricultural 
Botany. 

In Michigan State Department, their suggestive program in the 
ninth year otters as an elective Botany, Zoology and Physiography. 
Doctor Davis of Michigan in his suggested course for junior high 
schools gives in the nintli year Agriculture five periods per week as 
an elective. In Detroit, Physiography is offered in the ninth year 
five periods per week, and Applied Physics in the eighth-A and ninth-A 
in the Boys' industrial course. 

In Trenton in the seventh year, General Science is given for four 
hours per week, and in the ninth year, to academic students only, 
five periods per week. 

In Chelsea in the general course in the eighth year, Physics and 
Hygiene one-half year, and Nature Study one-half j^ear. In commer- 
cial and industrial courses iji the eighth year Physiography and Hy- 
giene one-half year, and in the ninth year Elementary Science. 

In the Butte survey, in the eighth year General Science is offered 
three periods per week, and in the ninth year Physical Geography 
five periods per week, and in their vocational courses, in the ninth 
year girls are offered Elementary Chemistry five periods per week, 
and boys Elementary Physics five periods per week. 

In the French Lycee, in the seventh, eighth, and ninth years. 
Natural Science is offered from one to two periods per half year. 

In the report of the Committee on junior high schools, presented 
at the High School Masters' Club of Massachusetts, General Science 
is recommended for the eighth and ninth years of the course, four 
periods per week. 

In Pittsburgh, Elementary Science is taught two periods per week 
in the seventh year, and five periods per week in the ninth year. 

In Erie, where a junior high school program has recently been 
prepared, Elementary Science is given two periods per week in the 
seventh year ; three periods per week in the eighth year ; and is elective 
live periods per week in the ninth year. 

This suras up the place of General Science in various school pro- 
grams which have been i^ecently prepared. 



CONTENT OF GENERAL SCIENCE COURSES 



W. W. D. SONES, Schenley High Hcliool, Pittsburgh 



In general the content of present general science courses are sub- 
ject to the following criticisms: 

1. The content is based upon faulty aims. At present subject 
matter is considered as an end in itself. The values hoped to 
be achieved are the tangible and utilitarian instead of the 
spiritual such as appreciation, proper mental habits, guides 
to conduct, which alone are to be justified. 

2. TJie content is based upon faulty method. Memorizing of 
facts is held above the solution of problems. The point of 
view must be — what problem and not what fact is vital to 
the child's life. 

3. Present content disregards the principle in emphasizing in- 
formation as an end. Isolated bits of information are tran- 
sient and soon lost. Basic principles are vital and endure. 
This fact suggests the need for a statement of minimum es- 
sentials in science study that will insure every child to 
receive those basic scientific principles that should be the 
common possession of all. 

It would seem that the selection of subject matter that is peda- 
gogically sound suggests the following questions: 

I. What criterion may be used in the selection of content? 
The answer is the child himself ; his needs and interests. 
Specifically, subject matter must be squared against 

1. The child's abilities — physical and mental. 

2. Whether or not the material develop out of the child's 
present experience and environment. 

3. Does it meet with the personal or social need of toe 
child? 

All may be summed up in the statement that any piece of 
subject matter is of value in a direct ratio with the number 
of points it has in common with the life of the child. 

II. What kinds of subject matter are available? 

1. The natural environment of the child. 

2. The child himself and his relation to his natural en- 
vironment. 

3. Science in }>»« social and community relationships. 



77 

f n these fields the following type problems are suggested : 

1. Natural environment: identification of plant and ani- 
mal forms, soil and study, seasonal calendars, earth 
forms, stars, etc. In brief every aspect of nature that 
is met in the child's local environment. 

2. The Child and his relation to nature: Phenomena of 
Iieat, light, sound, electricity. Home science problems, 
man's occupations, plant and animal inter relationship. 

.'i. The child's pergonal and community relationsTiips: 
water systems, community sanitation, health control, 
fire prevention, conservation. 

111. How assign suhject matter to the curriculum? The subject 
matter will not change from Grades 1 — 10. However, the 
point of view will be adjusted to the needs and interest of 
the developing child. These points of view are illustrated 
in the following points or themes: 

Grades 1— 3: The natural environment. 

Grades 4 — 6: The work of the world. 

Grades 0—10: Community and social sciences. 



CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN GENERAL SCIENCE 



LUCY L. W. WILSON, Principal, South Philadelphia High School 



Aims must determine the content of courses in general science. 
When we decided this morning that our object was to do our bit 
towards developing intelligent citizens with initiative, power to sus- 
pend judgment, a sense of responsibility, and the ability to cooperate 
with others in making a better Avorld for every one, then we out- 
lined the courses of study and the method of teaching it. 

Yet Dr. Clark tells us that her content varies constantly, and we 
know that a course in general science for city schools ought to differ 
from that for rural schools. Why this paradox? 

When general science came into existence a dozen years ago, 
teachers of science criticized each new text book as it appeared from 
the standpoint of content. They felt that no one book offered the 
necessary all-around course. In some too much emphasis was placed 
upon physics, in others on biology. Now that smoke of battle has 
cleared away, we can see clearly that this is as it should be. Only 
in rural communities can plants and animals equal in importance 
physics and hygiene in the immediate life of the child. 



78 

To accomplish the aims to which we have subscribed, the subject 
matter must be choseu from the child's environment, organized 
round his needs and interests and reach out and function from them 
into the community and world. The methods used must be various 
and varied. But it is imperatively necessary that the children should 
see problems, carry out projects and gather information. These 
things take precedence over the question of demonstration, laboratory 
work and text books. 

Quite naturally the content of a science course centers in the 
home, the school, the community. Such topics as heating, ventilating, 
lighting the home or school; electricity in home or school; house 
plants and musical instruments; home and school gardens, birds, 
poultry raising and bee keeping f the trolley, locomotive, automobile, 
steamships, submarines and aircraft; community water, milk and 
food supply; contagious diseases; conservation of forests and birds, 
and even moving pictures are some of the topics from which we may 
select our course. 



RECOMMENDATIONS OF COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE 



Aims and purposes of General Science adopted from report on 
"Reorganization of Science in Secondary Education," embody the 
consensus of opinion of this conference and are quoted as follows: 

A. To acquaint a pupil with his environment to the extent that he 
recognizes its scientific reaction upon himself and his possible con- 
structive reaction ujwn him. To make each pupil an immediate 
factor toward 

1. Improvement of the health of the nation and its individual 
members. It is important that all who are sick be cured, but it is 
more important that all people be so tough that they may not be- 
come ill. Dissemination of the basic principles of personal hygiene 
and public sanitation should be one of the first tasks of General 
Science. Also propaganda against loss of life, by avoidable accidents. 

2. Improvement in standards of home membership. General 
Science touches the efficiency of the home and life within the home 
at every angle and should render definite service toward the proper 
organization, use, and support of home life. These services apply 
not only to those who have the care of the home and the children 
within it, but to any member of the family who may be called upon 
to make repairs to the heating and ventilating system, to adjust 
electrical appliances, or to do any of the many things which are 
concerned in making an effective and useful home. There are many 



79 

conveniences which science has devised to make the modern home 
comfortable and attractive, and science knowledge is required for 
their proper use. These activities should be definitely associated 
with better ideals regarding modern home life. 

3. Elevation of the Standards of Citizenship. Individual members 
of society need to have intelligence, responsibility and connection of 
obligations regarding the things with which the members come in 
contact. Modern society should use the truth and appliances of 
science constantly. Science is indispensable to those who are to be 
of most service as citizens. The variety of scientific truth and appli- 
ances used by society necessitates a wide range of subjects to be 
covered in General Science. 

4. Elevation of Ethical Character of Pupil and Community. 

Ethical Character. It is believed that science studies assist in de- 
veloping of ethical character by establishing a more adequate con- 
ception of truth, and in it the laws of the cause and effort. Nature 
exacts her penalties upon those who disobey her laws and gives legi- 
timate returns to those who obey her and use them. It cannot be 
claimed that science study will cure all tendency to divergent ethics, 
but along with other studies which exalt the truth and establish laws, 
science should make an important contribution by developing a 
method of work which may be used in studying the one ethical rela- 
tion of subjects other than science. Ultimately ethics should be 
based upon scientific conceptions and producers. 

B. General Science should develop specific interests, habits and 
abilities. 

A large amount of experiences of this sort has been lost in the home 
training of pupils, experiences which they formerly obtained through 
the duties, responsibilities and activities of a more self-contained and 
autonymous ^ome life. This deficiency the school is called upon to 
meet in a greater and greater degree. Science work properly con- 
ducted sliould give each pupil a varied contact with actual materials. 
This sort of experiencing is markedly different from the sort which 
he gets through books, diagrams, comparisons, and other symbolic 
materials Avhich make up the content of most subjects of study. 
Science study then possesses a peculiar value by reason of the ex- 
perimental work it involves in providing personal experience. To pro- 
vide the desired actual quality, the materials must have a real sig- 
nificance in the lives of the pupils. 

C. General Science should give informational value. Science study 
should give the pupil control of a large body of facts and principles 
of significance in the home, school and community, and should build 
up an intelligent understanding of the conditions, institutions, de- 
mands and opportunities of modern life. This knowledge should be 



80 

of (liieet assistance iu enabling the pupil more intelligently to select 
I'uture vocations or courses of stud3^ The value is not only in the 
facts and principles but also in the measure which they represent 
]>oints of view, deepened and intensified powers of insight, methods 
of procedure, points of departure for new attempts to reduce a wider 
range of facts to order. 

Science Curricula 

The science curricula to be recommended will vary with the type 
and environment of the schools. Each year's work should be so 
outlined that it will give the best training without reference to 
whether the pupils take courses in science. Many schools will need 
to make adjustments of an adopted sequence, so that it may best 
serve the school's particular constituency. The committee has out- 
lined sequences for the following types of high school: 

A. The four year high school of the large composite type with 
adequate teaching staff and equipment, usually enrolling 
over 500 pupils. 

B. The four-year high school of medium size, usually enrolling 
from 200 to 500 pupils. 

C. The small high school of 200 or fewer pupils. 

D. The junior-senior high school combination. 

A. The large composite jour-year high school 

The conditions usually prevailing in these schools make possible a 
wide differentiation of science courses since they are likely to be 
enough pupils of special interest to constitute adequate classes in 
ditterent lines of science work. In such a four year high school the 
following plan is recommended: 

1st year — General Science. 

2nd year— Biological Science — general biology, botany or 
zoologj'. 

3rd and 4th year — Differentiated curricula to meet special 
needs and interests as follows : 

a. Physical Science — Chemivstry and Physics. 

b. Domestic Science, with additional elective courses in 

Houseliold Chemistry and Physics of the Home. 

c. Agriculture — two year course — Farm crops. Animal Hus- 

bandry, Farm Management and" Economics. 

d. Elective courses in General Geogi'aphy, Botany, Zoology, 

Physics, Chemistry. 



81 

B. Four-year High School of Medium Size 

1st year — General Science. 

2nd year — Biological Science — general biology, botany or 
zoology. 

Jird year — Chemistry, witli emphasis on the home, farm and 
indnstries. 

-1th year— I'hysics, or elective courses, 3rd and 4th year in 
Domestic Science. Agriculture, or General Geography. 

C. Small High School 

1st year — General Science. 

2nd year — Biological Science — general biology, botany, or 
zoology. 

3rd year — Chemistry, Agriculture, or Domestic Science. 

4th year — Agriculture, Domestic Science, or Physics. 

D. Junior-Senior High School 

7th or 8th year: or both years with three periods per week — 
General Science. 

9th year — Biological Science — General biology, botany or 
zoology. 

10th, 11th and 12th years — Differentiated curricula with suffi- 
cient advanced courses to meet special needs and inter- 
ests, as: 

a. Physical Science — Chemistry and Physics. 

b. Domestic Science — Two or three year course, with addi- 

tional elective courses in Household Chemistry and 
Physics of the Home. 

c. Agriculture — two or three year course — Farm crops, 

Animal husbandry. Farm Management and Economics, 
with additional electives from d. 

d. Electives in General Geography, Botany, Zoology, 

Physics, Chemistry. 



W^ 



m 



(82) 



MATHEMATICS 



(83) 



M 



y\.\ (iENEKAL PKiNCiPLES GOVERNING THE ARRANGE- 
MENT OF A COURSE OF STUDY IN HIGH SCHOOL 
MATHEMATICS 



DAVID EUGENE SMITH, ColumUa University. N. Y. 



1. Principle of General Injorniution. That it is tlie right and the 
privilege of every student to know the general significance of the 
great branches of human knowledge, among which is mathematics. 
Current literature, such hand-books as the encyclopedias and the 
common technical manuals, and the general converse of one's fel- 
lows require that every citizen of a fair degree of education should 
come in contact with the elements of mathematics. For this reason 
an introductory course in mathematics should be required of every 
student. If the student fails in such work, it would be legitimate 
thereafter to allow the substitution of a course of equal difficulty 
in some other line. 

2. Principle of Interest. That the student has a right to know 
the purpose of each course, to feel that it is leading to something 
worth his while, and to have before him a motive that appeals to 
him as urging to intellectual activity. 

3. Principle of Arrangement. That the work shall be so arranged 
that each year, and possibly each half year, shall mark a definite 
stage in the student's progress. Jn other words, if the student 
drops out of school at any time he should feel that he has accom- 
plished something definitely worth while up to that point, and not 
that he has been working on something that might possibly be worth 
while if he had stayed longer. 

4. Principle of Time. Our courses are now so crowded that the 
element of time is a serious one. For this reason it is doubtful if 
the large high schools with a rich offering of courses Avill agree to 
allowing required mathematics to extend beyond the ninth school 
year. If this shall prove to be the case, we have to consider two 
plans for the division of time in the general high school course, 
omitting for the present the question of vocational mathematics 
of various types. 

If the three-and-three plan is adopted, say a junior and a senior 
high school, then the work should be such that at the end of the 
ninth school year a pupil may know the general significance of 
Intuitive geometry (form, size, ami posilion of objects, with useful 

(85) 



86 

constructions), of useful algebra (the formula, the graph, the nega- 
tive number, and the equation), of trigonometry (simply for the 
purpose of knowing how indirect measurements are made by the 
aid of two or three functions), and of demonstrative geometry (for 
the purpose of understanding what it means to demonstrate a 
mathematical truth). All this work should be informational and 
should be shown to be definitel}^ useful to the general citizen. 

Where the four-year high school is to be continued, as will be the 
case in most places for the present, the work of the ninth school 
year should be an epitome of that of the junior high school as out- 
lined above. It should be informational, for the purpose of show- 
ing the general nature of mathematics, opening the door in such a 
way as to enable the school and the student to decide as to the 
future work of each individual. 

Such a plan will make for much better work in the later classes, 
where mathematics will be elected by those who give promise of 
success; and it will give to the student a much better idea of the 
general nature of the science. 

5. Principle of Opportunity. That the opportunity of doing 
much better and more extensive and intensive work in mathematics 
should be given to those who, at the end of the ninth school year, 
show promise of benefiting by further study. At present this will 
probably mean the pursuing of mathematics along the conventional 
lines. In the future it will undoubtedly mean the offering of more 
advanced and of better considered work in modern types of mathe- 
matical study. There is no reason, under such a plan, why the com- 
posite courses now offered in the freshman classes for many col- 
leges, or the special courses offered in other colleges, should not be 
made elective in our larger high schools. 

6. Principle of teaching. It is not to be expected that a newer 
type of course can be at once introduced in every high school. 
Teachers have to be prepared for any change that is contemplated 
in any line of work. Such a course, however, while arranged on the 
plan of seeking for the useful in mathematics, does not in any way 
discourage the recognition of the disciplinary value of the subject. 
No one of recognized scientific standing seems to have exi^ressed 
any doubt of such value, and the 'subject should be so taught as to 
bring out all such values of the science. 



87 



FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE COURSE 

IN MATHEMATICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 

AND COLLEGE 



I. B. BUSH, Superintendent of Schools, Erie 



The tendency of the age is to test all things. The fact of the exis- 
tence of a thing for ages is no reason that it shall continue to exist. 
Ancestor worship is on the wane not only in this country but 
throughout the world. We are continually discovering newer and 
better ways of doing everything. Progress is being made daily in 
the methods of teaching and the selection of subject matter. 
Courses of stud}' must be in a state of flux. Changes in courses of 
study began in the schools with the introduction of new subjects, 
such as manual arts, commercial subjects, fine arts, etc. The spirit 
of change has gathered such momentum that it will not end until 
changes have been made in the subject matter of traditional sub- 
jects. Over against the obstinacy and the conservatism of teachers 
of traditional subjects is set the movement of those who are deter- 
mined to fit subjects to pupils rather than to try to fit pupils to 
subjects. The interest of to-day is in supervised study ; better 
methods of teaching pupils to think ; in economy of human knowledge 
and enthusiasm ; in making courses more productive for mental life 
and growth. 

Some teachers of mathematics still continue to think that it is 
a virtue to fail twenty-five per cent, of their classes. Such teachers 
have no insight into social relations. They have failed to realize 
that the time has passed when it was the chief duty of the teacher to 
eliminate what he termed as "the unfit." The time has passed for 
teaching subject matter to pupils and the time has arrived for teach- 
ing pupils subject matter. 

In the Subject of mathematics there must be greater homogeneity 
of material, a closer and more persistent correlation of matter drawn 
from the several branches of mathematics. Pupils are most inter- 
ested in subjects in which practical values are most clearly exhib- 
ited. Children's minds refuse to act as storage batteries for knowl- 
edge. The cycle of knowledge is not complete until the knowledge 
has been used. 

Four courses should be provided in mathematics; informational 
courses for those who have but little aptitude for mathematics in 
order that they may know something of the algebraic processes, 
geometrical theorems and the trigonometric functions. 

s 



88 

An industrial and vocational course that provides subject matter 
that will function in the particular vocation which the pupil has 
selected. 

The correlated course which correlates algebra, geometry and trig- 
onometry. 

A course that will fit boys and girls for college. 

The principles that should govern the selection of subject matter 
may be stated as follows: 

1 — Selection of subject matter that will function in the lives of 
the pupils. 

2 — Motivation of subject matter. 

3 — Opportunities should be provided for the pupils to use the 
subject matter. They should be given an op])ortunity to learn by 
experience. 

4 — A better recognition of vocational needs of pupils. 

5 — That it is not the purpose of mathematics to eliminate pupils 
from school. 



(2.) A NEW TYPE OF HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 



JANE MATTHEWS, Pittshurgh 



When I obeyed the command of my superior officer to attend 
this conference, 1 came with an open mind — ready to be instructed 
not to instruct, as to the new type of mathematics which may well 
replace the old. The suggestions that I offer, therefore, are not 
original but have been gleaned from conferences, reading, and experi- 
ence, and as such 1 pass them on to you. 

For some years past we teachers of mathematics have had to fight 
an insidious propaganda against our subject by our friends, the 
psychologists. They would have the world think from their con- 
clusions, founded on experiments not in the hands of mathema- 
ticians, that the cultural claims for our subject were exaggerated 
and that mathematics no longer had high rank in the curriculum, 
and therefore, they demanded that less or no time be given mathe- 
matics in the curriculum. Then came the Great War, and the carp- 
ing criticism of our enemies have been drowned by its stern call 
for mathematics, and still more mathematics, to prepare our youth 
for efticient service. The lesson of the War is, therefore, not less, 
but more mathematics in our high school courses, for the valuable 
content of mathematics in its wide-s})i'ea(l usefulness is second only 
to that of the mother tongue. 



89 

Since our high school eurolliuents have changed from the few with 
academic aspirations to the many with varied ambitions, and equally 
as varie<l prepai'atiou, the time-honored arrangement and presenta- 
tion of our mathematics is no longer satisfactory. We must adapt 
our mathematics to the needs of the pupils; not to make it easier, 
but to make it more useful. 

The National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, which 
was organized in the summer of 1916 for the purpose of giving 
national expression to the movement for reform in the teaching of 
mathematics, have planned their work on a large scale for the pur- 
pose of organizing a nation-wide discussion of the problems of re- 
organizing tlie courses in mathematics in secondary schools and col- 
leges. This committee wishes to establish contact with existing or- 
ganizations of teachers for the purpose of study of the problem of 
reform, and they invite cooperation and assistance. It seems to me 
that the high school teachers of Pennsylvania should be among the 
first to respond to this call, for only through study, discussion, and 
coordination can a new tyjje of mathenmtics be evolved that will be 
well organized and educative. I would suggest, therefore, that mem- 
bers of this conference put themselves on record as endorsing the 
work of this committee and |)romising all assistance that may be 
asked. 

What are some of the relorms that are advocated in the teaching 
of high school mathematics? 

First — Great complaint is made in regard to ninth year mathemat- 
ics. Algebra is the subject usually studied, and the work as out- 
lined in most texts, which most ninth year teachers either follow 
blindly or are forced to follow, requires at least 80 per cent, of thxi 
time to be spent in formal manipulation, and only about 20 per cent, 
of the time in problem work — and to what end? Has the pupil ac- 
quired greater power by going through these complex manipulations 
^s in the reduction of complex fractions? What has been tlie expe- 
rience of other teachers? Mine has been that after solving even 
complex, literal equations and evaluating results, he will balk on the 
simplest formula. 1 have had to work hard to make him travel in 
the narrow path of rectitude when solving such a simple formula 

kS=V,+AVo for Vo. 

He passes from my class to the physics class and again the in- 
structor tells me he works hard to get my pupil to change a reading 
centigrade to Fahrenlieit by formula. What is wrong? My pupil 
has not learned how to make a formula ; how to translate it into oral 
and written English, and how to apply it to problems. 

Instead then of having the pupil spend his time in the more in- 
volved formal processes in the ninth year, which he may never use 
in his later work, why not make him able to handle formulas and to 



90 

analyze verbal problems. It is a good sign that at the present time 
texts in general mathematics are being published that emphasize 
problem solving, leaving out much formal work. If these are used 
in our high schools, there must be a radical change in our course. 

1 do not advocate the neglect of drill in operations. Short proc- 
esses and special rules are just as important in algebra as the tables 
are in arithmetic. We should develop speed and accuracy in the 
fundamental operations, and here is where the practice tests, such 
as those of Rugg and Clark, have been so useful. Standard tests and 
scales have brought into the teaching of algebra accuracy and de- 
finiteness of work, and they have brought home to the teacher the 
weak points in the presentation of work. It has been my experience 
that pupils enjoy these tests. There have been more interest and 
concentrated work in those three minute or five minute drills than 
in anything I can devise. 

Now as to subject matter. A good, stiff course of the old-fashioned 
mathematics for a pupil preparing for college or technical school is, 
perhaps, the only course under present college requirements. But 
what shall be done for the student not going to college and likely 
to drop out of school at 16 years to go to work? 

Take the boy in the industrial course, or the Smith-Hughes course 
— what mathematics is best for him? A well organized course in 
practical mathematics lasting about one-fourth of his time. He 
should have drill in making and interpreting formulas so that he may 
be able to interpret formulas in hand-books which he may have to 
use in future work. He should have simple, straight-forward courses 
in algebra and geometry, bringing into the latter problems in men- 
suration. He should be taught the simpler trigonometric functions 
and their application, learning to use* the tables of these functions. 
Finally, he should learn the use of the slide rule and of surveying 
instruments. Such a course worked out in detail and correlated with 
the shop would give to the boy who must go out to work enough 
to start to make of himself an intelligent workman, but unless this 
course be carefully planned through conferences of mathematics and 
shop instructors, the work will be futile, unrelated, and a time 
waster. Excellent courses of this kind have been developed in the 
Manual Training School of Springfield, Mass., and in the Stuyves- 
tant High School, New York. 

What mathematics for the girl who elects the Domestic Science or 
Manual Arts course in our larger high schools? I believe simple, 
straight-forward courses in algebra and geometry should be given 
her, but I also believe a short course in family accounts, home plan- 
ning, and design should be given some where in the course in mathe- 
matics. One term's work could be made a project centering about 
the financial standing and expenditure of a family in which the 



91 

students are really or academically interested. With that could be 
given a necessary review of arithmetical operations — simple fractions 
and decimals — correlation could be made with the kitchen and sewing 
departments concerning estimates for expenditure for meals and 
clothing. It has been my experience that girls become most inter- 
ested in such a family and will work long and hard to estimate when 
the last dollar is to be paid on a home which the family has bought 
by monthly installments. 

We are all familiar with the criticism of the high school graduate 
when he first enters the business world. He seems to be absolutely 
without tools for work, and the employer wrathfully blames his high 
school training. We in the high school blame it on the grades, but 
would it not be better to face the condition and improve it ? 

Algebra and geometry are the required mathematics in most high 
schools. W^ould it not be better to add to that requirement a good, 
stiff review of the arithmetic needed in common life? Many of our 
best educators are advocating this. A very illuminating report was 
presented at the spring meeting of the Association of Teachers of 
Mathematics in New England, May 3, 1919. A well organized out- 
line for mathematics for the non-college students is published in the 
June number of the Mathematics Teacher, 1919. 

Andjiow to summarize the changes needed in high school mathe- 
matics. 

1st — Revise the ninth year mathematics, by dropping out un- 
necessary fonniil manipulations; by increasing the. num- 
ber of statement problems. 

2nd — Adapt the course to the needs of the student. 
For the industiial student — 

By use of practical problems and familiarity with the 
tools of his later work — the formula and the slide 
rule. 
For the domestic science or manual arts student — 

By offering problems in household economy, house- 
furnishing, dietetics, dressmaking, and millinery. 
For all non-college students — 
A thorough review of arithmetic. 



92 



(3.) KEQUIKEJ) AND ELECTIVE MATHEMATICS IK HKIH 

SCHOOL COURSE 



WILLIAM L. SMITH, Principal, Allegheny High School, Pittsburgh 



Since all courses iu public high schools are primarily for the pur- 
pose of training boys and girls in citizenship for service to the com- 
munity and, since effective service demands those qualities of man- 
hood and womanhood which come only from exercise in right think- 
ing, right feeling, and right doing, it follows that courses of study 
must be formulated Avith these ends in view and must present material 
essential to such training. 

The function of the citizen in a democratic society is so complex 
and so fraught with responsibility that it demands not only a wide 
knowledge of the principles of government on which democratic in- 
stitutions are founded, but also a close intimacy with these principles, 
as they obtain in organized society. This intimacy can come, not 
merely from training for citizenship, but from daily exercise in doing 
those things which the welfare of the community demands. 

The meeting of such responsibilities requires manl}' qualities of 
mind and heait. These qualities i esult from the solution of problems 
involving conditions incident to society and tliey become fixed by 
frequent exercise in such solutions. 

That Mathematics offers unusual opportunities for the development 
of the qualiiies requisite to effective service, needs no argument. The 
questions are: what subjects are best adapted to the ends sought 
and when and how should they be required or offered? 

It is generally accepted that all students in high school should, 
early in their course, master the elementary j)rinciples of Algebra 
and Plane Geometry. This does not mean that the courses in these 
subjects as at present organized, should be required in the first and 
second years of the high school, but it does mean that these subjects, 
with material properly organized and sanely presented, aside from 
the information they furnish, afford unusual opportunities for train- 
ing, are therefore essential and should be required at some time during 
the high school course. - 

Courses in advanced Algebra, Solid Geometry and Trigonometry 
must be offered for those students needing further training in these 
subjects for vocational, professional or cultural purposes, but these 
courses should not be required. 

For vocational purposes, a thorough course in Business Arithmetic 
should be required in the early years of the Business Course. This 
work should not be a review of general arithmetic but a specialized 
course, laying stress upon methods and manipulations employe^ in 
actual business practice. 



9a 

The important thing in Mathematics course, as iu all other sub- 
jects, is so to adapt the content to the ends sought, that the non- 
essential may be eliminated and the essential may receive the em- 
1 basis which will render the end sought not only possible but readily 
accessible. Failure to realize the purpose set. in dealing with young 
people, not only robs them of the joy of achievement, but also may 
work disaster in their life experience. 



(4.) TRAINING TEACHEKS OF SE00]SJ>AKY-SCHOOL MATHE- 
MATICS 



JODWIX SMITH, Slate VoUcge 



The minimum requirement in tlie training ol teachers of high-school 
mathematics should be substantially as follows, in so far as teachers 
possessing the required qualifications are available: 

1. Graduation from a four-year course in a college or university 
requiring a four-year high school course for admission, or a similar 
period of stiidj'^ in an institution of the same academic standing. 

2. The major subject of the college course should be Mathematics, 
.md the minor subject should include courses allied and related to 
mathematics. The major course should consist of Trigonometry, 
Analytical Geometry, College Algebra, Ditferential and Integral Cal- 
culus, History of Mathematics, Ditferential Equations, and a course 
treating of Elementary Mathematics from an advanced view point. 
The minor courses should be chosen from a group which includes 
Mechanics, Physics, Surveying, Astronomy and Statistics, and at 
le-.ist two courses should be taken. 

o. Two or more courses designed to give the prospective teacher 
a knowledge of society should be selected from a group including 
History, Economics, Political Science, Sociology and similar subjects. 

4. One or more courses designed to give a knowledge of the indi- 
vidual, in particular the high-school pupil, should be taken from a 
group including Psychology, Etliics, Philosophy, and Logic. 

5. Three or more courses should be reqiiired from a group including 
those generally offered in the department or schools of Education in 
our colleges and universities, in particular such courses as Secondary 
Education, Principles of Education, High School Administration, 
History of Education, Educational Hygiene, Educational Psychology 
rnd Educational Measurements. 



94 

6. Practice teaching of a class in high-school mathematics in a 
demonstration school or a good well-organized public or private high 
■school for at least one semester. 

7. In special cases these minimum requirements should be extended 
so as to prepare teachers for special groups of students which are 
found in technical, commercial, vocational, or secondary schools. 
This special training should, if tlie prospective teacher has not al- 
ready had the opportunity^ bring him into a knowledge ^of and into 
a contact with the trade or industry which his students will probably 
enter. 

The colleges and universities of the United States offer ample 
facilities for the training of secondary-school mathematics teachers 
which I have suggested. No less than forty of the best institutions of 
the country are offering work along these general lines. 

The ideal training should require a specialized mathematical course 
in a college or u^iiversity and this should be followed by at least 
one year of graduate professional study. The professional study 
should include original investigation and research in some problem 
concerning the teaching of secondary-school mathematics. Even with 
this additional study the standards would be lower than those re- 
quired of other professions such as Law, Medicine, and the Ministry. 



THE TRAINING OF MATHEMATICS TEACHERS 



J. H. MINNICK, University of Pennsylvania 



The proper training of mathematics teachers can be determined 
only when we have determined the aims of mathematical education. 
Without discussing the matter we shall assume that the following 
are acceptable aims: 

1. To give to each individual a means of quantitative adjustment 
to out-of -school situations. 

2. To serve as n means of educational guidance by discovering the 
child's aptitudes and by showing him the vocations and professions 
opened by a mastery of mathematics. 

3. To develop the child's abilities and capacities. This can be done 
best only when mathematics is taught in relation to real-life condi- 
tions. 

In order that a teacher may realize these aims through mathematics 
it seems that he should have some such training as that outlined 
below : 



95 

I. Mathematical Content: — If a teacher is to present mathematics 
in its relation to real-life situations he must be able to select and 
reorganize his material anew to meet the needs of each new problem 
taken as the center of a piece of work. Out of school mathematics 
does not occur logically organized subject by subject and page by 
page. Hence a constant reorganization is necessary. Such teaching 
demands that a teacher shall be so familiar with the subjects which 
he teaches that he select and reorganize at will. 

It will be impossible for any teacher to give a child an adequate 
view of the opportunities opened to him unless he has knowledge of 
mathematical subjects far in advance of anj^thing that the child will 
study. Further, he must have a knowledge of these subjects in rela- 
tion to their practical applications. Also a knowledge of the part 
\thich mathematics has played in the development of civilization in 
giving the child a view of the usefulness of the subject. Hence it 
seems reasonable that every teacher of mathematics should have 
a thorough training in the following subjects: 

Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, 
calculus, and the history of mathematics. 

II. Professional Training: — The teacher of mathematics does not 
work alone. He is a part of a school system and should have a 
knowledge of the aims and purposes of that system. Also, just as 
he should appreciate the significance of mathematics in the develop- 
ment of civilization, he should appreciate the part which education 
has played in the progress of society. He should also understand 
the child's mind with which he is to work and the best way of pre- 
senting his subject to the child. Hence his professional training 
should include the history of education, secondary education, ele- 
ments of school administration, educational psychology, special 
methods in mathematics, and practice teaching, 

III. Experience in Out-oj ^cliool Life: — If a teacher is to present 
mathematics as a means of solving problems which the child will 
meet out of school, then he should have as much experience as pos- 
sible in the offices, shops, stores, factories, etc. where the boys and 
girls will find their future employment. Reading about such work 
will not give the teacher any such real idea of the problems involved 

I as will first-hand experience. Hence it seems reasonable that every 
teacher of mathematics should have at least a year of experience 
in those out-of school activities in which mathematics finds frequent 
application and that this experience shall be as varied as possible. 
Within certaiu limits school boards should accept such experience 
gained ,<!!!u;r1;ng the summer vacations in lieu of study in summer 
schools. 



IV. Cultural Training: — Our teacher of mathematics is not only 
a part of a mathematical department and of a school sj'stem, but he 
is also a part of society. Also the child whom he is training will 
have not only a mathematical, but a complete social environment 
to which he must be adjusted. Hence it is essential that the teacher 
of mathematics shall have a broad view of the society to which he 
and Ms pupils belong and this requires a knowledge of some such 
subject as sociology, English, science, history, economics, and politi- 
cal science. 

Such a training will require at least four years of college work 
built upon a four-year high school course. It will be expensive, but 
it will pay both the teacher and the state. When teachers have 
had some such training we may expect better things in mathematics ; 
but until then we must be content with the slavish following of 
formal text books. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGES 



(97) 



m 



(98) 



(1.) AIMS AND PUEPOSES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDY 



E. B. deSAUZI, Director of Modern Languages, Cleveland, Ohio 



The principle aim of foreign language teaching is to impart a com- 
prehensive, integral command of the language taught, that is to 
say, that the student should always be able to read, write and speak 
and understand within the limits of the vocabulary so far studied 
and grammatical constructions so far taught. The process must be 
a process of simultaneous growth along these various lines. 

(1) Teachers must impart to students the ability to read. Read- 
ing is not deciphering; by reading it is meant that the meaning of 
the sentences read must flash to the mind without passing through 
the intermediary of the mother tongue. We must accustom them to 
think in the foreign language. To this end it is advisable to abolish 
translation from French, Spanish and German into English, as it is 
a harmful habit and a very inefficient use to make of the time at our 
disposal. 

(2) The ability to understand, that is to say, granted that the 
student has had the vocabulary and grammatical forms involved, the 
meaning of the sentences must flash through his mind instanta- 
neously without first passing through the intermediary of his mother 
tongue. 

(3) The ability to speak. The teaching of a foreign language that 
doesn't achieve the ability to express oneself within the limit of 
the vocabulary and principles studied, is mis-directed teaching. In 
learning to speak, the correct method is not to commit to memory a 
stock of ready-made sentences; a language is too rich, too complex 
to be mastered merely by memorizing. The student must pass 
through two stages; the conscious one, during which he constructs 
his sentences by a process of reasoning, by applying certain prin- 
ciples ; a sub-conscious stage, which is the result of the preceding 
one, and during which the sentences, having become thoroughly 
mastered by frequent repetition, are expressed without involving the 
same reflection. 

(4) The ability to write. While a very limited amount of formal 
composition (English into French, Spanish or German) may be used 
to clinch accurate application of grammatical rules and idiomatic 
expressions, teachers will find that informal composition (directly 



(99) 



300 

into the foreign tongue) is far more dependable as a means of lead- 
ing students to write sentences that have a foreign flavor instead 
of merely English constructions with foreign words. A certain 
amount of commercial correspondence should be taught. 

(5) The ability to pronounce correctly, that is to say, the acqui- 
sition of a pronunciation that is not offensive to the native. Cor- 
rect pronunciation should be the obsession of the teacher throughout 
the foreign language course. It must be the object of constant 
drill, though phonetic transcriptions are not advised ; they introduce 
a useless intermediary when none is really needed. Teachers should 
have a knowledge of phonetics because through this study alone, 
they are able to fix their own pronunciation and acquire the Iniowl- ^ 
edge of imparting sounds to students. 

(6) Foreign language teaching must introduce the students to 
the life and customs and literature of the foreign nations. 

(a) For cultural reasons, to open to him the rich mine of 
thoughts, of ideals, contained in foreign literatures, to broaden 
his field of vision and to eliminate narrow provincialism. 

(b) To make him understand the genius of other nations 
and to contribute to the realization of universal peace by the 
understanding of other nations' viewpoints and ideals. This 
problem is eminently one of education and to the solution of 
this problem we hope to see modern language teachers with 
vision contribute. 

(c) For commercial reasons, a man with a practical knowl- 
edge of a language and who at the same time has a sympathetic 
understanding of the ideals and customs, manners and idio- 
syncrasies of the people with whom he is dealing, has a far 
greater chance of success, everything being otherwise equal. 

This familiarity with a foreign nation is not achieved by reading 
a manufactured text which imparts a lengthy series of facts and 
statistics but by reading carefully selected texts which are charac- 
teristically French or Spanish, and by series of side-talks by the 
teacher whenever suggested by the reading or by the daily- news- 
papers. 

(7) The study of a modern language must have disciplinary value. 
The method used by the teacher must arouse the habit of accurate 
thinking; it must teach the student to compare, to discriminate: it 
must give him nimbleness of thought. Oral drill will be found to 
be the best means to impart such mental discipline, but an oral drill, 
that requires exercise of analytical and reflective faculties and is 
not merely an exercise of memory. Oral and aural drills are now 
the best means advised to vitalize the teaching, to maintain interest. 






101 

jSucli drill, if conchicted properly, will achieve every one of our aims, 
'iiucludiug the ability to read, for actual tests have demonstrated 
'!that the shortest road to even a reading knowledge of a language 
lis through oral drill. The mastery of forms, of idiomatic expres- 
■jsions and of vocabularies is impossible, or at least very rarely 
I achieved by anj' other means. Oral drill furnishes the motivation 
jjso necessary to keep students alert. 

I] (8) While the study of a foreign language contributes greatly to 
jjthe improvement of the student's English, it is not advisable to go 
[ out of one's way a great deal to teach formal English in a foreign 
language class. Translalion into the mother tongue has been some- 
times advocated on the ground that it helps the knowledge of Eng- 
lish. It is greatly a fallacy. It defeats, furthermore, several of our 
' most important aims. The English of the student is benefited 
inosth' b}" his reasoning of grammatical forms of the foreign lan- 
guage, and his conscious application of such grammatical relation- 
ship. It increases his vocabulary whenever the language study is 
related to his own and it gives him that somewhat elusive ability 
called the language sense. 
' One fact stands out i)rominently when we take a retrospective 
look in modern language teaching an<I that is the woeful lack of 
results. The war has demonstrated, greatly to our humiliation, 
that onr teaching and the produce of our teaching could not stand 
the test that they were put to in the emergency. Here is a blot that 
we must remove; it is the oft repeated saying "Oh, I had only high 
school or college S])anisli, French, etc." We must produce results, 
practical results or our subjects will be wiped out of the curriculum 
and justly so. Let us not defend old' methods on the ground that 
they impart that immeasureable thing called mental culture. 1 fail 
to see the amount of culture contained in merelj^ studying theoret- 
ically grammatical facts and in translating pages after pages of 
good literature into usualW poor English, but 1 can see a great dis- 
ciplinary value in expressing oneself through a conscious process of 
reasoning into a foreign tongue. A new era is dawning in the edu- 
cational field ; a re-adjustment of values. Let us modern language 
teachers step to the front and justify the time spent in our subject 
by adequate returns in accomplishments. 



102 

(2.) THE RELATIVE AMOUNT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN A 
• WELL BALANCED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 



ARTHUR J. JONES, University of Pennsylvania 
A. B. MEREDITH, Asst. Commissioner of Education, New Jersey 



Dr. Jones felt in the first place that for some pupils, not neces- 
sarily the dull ones, there should be no foreign language at all in 
a well balanced curriculum; in the second place, that, under present 
conditions and present college entrance requirements, a maximum 
of four or five years of foreign language would not be out of place 
in the curriculum of a small high school that might be poorly 
equipped for science teaching. But this should be determined by 
the relative needs of groups of pupils. Finally, although admitting 
that the relative value of science and social studies, on the one hand, 
and of foreign languages, on the other, when considered on strictly 
scientific grounds of proof, was not established with any degree of 
absolute certainty. Dr. Jones maintained that we should materially 
change the amount of foreign language offered in our high schools, 
because we were living in a ditB^rent kind of society from that of 
our forefathers of 300 years ago ; the world had greatly progressed 
since their day; science had grown to be a daily necessity in our 
lives; civic, state and national responsibilities came home to each 
citizen, and the humanities were no longer confined to Latin and 
Greek, nor even to the modern foreign languages, but had broadened 
in scope so as to concern science, history, civics, economics, and the 
mother tongue. 

Altho conscious of the fact that 25% of the high school graduates 
of New Jersey attend higher institutions of learning, Dr. Meredith 
spoke in favor of having foreign languages elective in any high 
school curriculum. 



(3.) THE PROBLEM OF METHOD IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 



G. C. L. RIEMER, State Department of Public Instruction 



In his discussion Dr. Riemer passed in review the various methods 
of modern language teaching and urged that our teachers use an 
eclectic method, choosing and adapting to their needs thei best fea- 
tures of the methods now in vogue throughout the world. 



103 

(1) In the Grammar or Grammar-Translation Method there is 
nothing for us today. We no longer have much faith in formal 
discipline. Grammar study is dry and deadening. There is no 
broadening of the mind thru contact with the life, ideas, and the 
complete forms of thought and expression of the foreign tongue. 
The testimony of the men who studied in this way is rather unfavor- 
able, and a large majority know and speak only of this mechanical 
side of language study. 

(2) For the Natural or Conversation Method, the pupils should 
be younger. There is no system about it, too much depends on the 
personality of the teacher. It lacks the phonetic basis, and so the 
pronunciation is inaccurate and unintelligible. In its first stages 
it makes no use of reading or writing, dealing with conversation 
pure and simple. Heading is thus postponed to too late a period 
for our conditions and desires. No systematic grammar is taught, 
or the statements of connected grammatical principles are post- 
poned to a very late stage. The fluent use of incorrect forms, and 
vagueness and lack of precision of expression result. But it awakens 
enthusiasm and interest, and brings life and vivacity into the instruc- 
tion. This vivifying influence should not be overlooked. 

(3) The Psychological Method, also called the Gouin or Betis 
Method, makes use of the principle of the association of ideas and 
the habit of mental visualization. It arranges the material in groups, 
the parts of which are logically connected. Thereby, it gives a ready 
command over a large, well arranged, and well-digested vocabulary. 
It fascinates the pupil and holds his attention. But reading and 
literary study are postponed to a late period; the treatment of pro- 
nunciation is unsatisfactory; and the cultivation of the esthetic 
sense is neglected. 

(4) The so-called Beading or Translation Method aims merely at 
the translation or reading of the foreign idiom. The text is used 
from the very beginning, and there is a great deal of translation at 
sight. Pronunciation is neglected; the pupil's ear is not trained 
to understand the spoken word. In this way the ear and the vocal 
organs are not used as aids to the memory. Nor does it lay a good 
basis for the pupil to continue his work in the future. Further- 
more, the teacher is in danger of becoming indolent. 

(5) The Phonetic Method, called by some the Direct, or Keform 
Method, contains much that is exceedingly commendable and quite 
adaptable to the requirements of our educational system. Appeal- 
ing to the ear, the eye, and the vocal chords, it uses the associations 
of all three as aids to the memory. There is no danger of the teacher 
becoming indolent, and the class never lacks interest or enthusiasm. 
We cannot, however, adopt it in its entirety. We do not have suflS- 



104 

cient time. In our high schools we have at best but a four ye«rs' 
course, while six years and more are allotted to the work in Europe. 
For various reasons we differ, besides, in aim and final goal. "SVe 
cannot, therefore, make wide use of the method without some modi- 
fications and adjustments. 

(a) Pronunciation. An adjustment in the teaching of pronuncia- 
tion is necessary. The advocates of this method pay much atten- 
tion to pronunciation, and use practical phonetics wherever possi- 
ble. We should do the same. Unfortunately, however, many of our 
teachers know nothing about phonetics. Possessing a good pronun- 
ciation, they must try to teach a fairly acceptable pronunciation by 
having their pupils imitate them. In the case of French that is, 
however, all but impossible. Our teachers should make endeavors 
to gain some knowledge of phonetics. It is an excellent aid in 
teaching any modern language. Considerable can be easily acquired 
with the help of a hand mirror and books like that of Prokosch, 
Grandgent, Hempl, Churchman, or Geddes. The method demands 
the free use of phonetic charts an<l texts. The charts seem excellent, 
but the texts have, in my mind, a doubtful value. 

(b) Grammar. And there should be some modifications in the 
teaching of grammar. According to the Direct Method grammar 
is taught inductively and without the use of the pupil's native 
tongue. On account of the age of our pupils and the shorter period 
of time devoted to the subject, it seems advisable to teach some 
of the grammatical principles deductively. A clear and concise 
statement of the principle, and at first the use of English might 
here be permis.sible. should be followed by oral exercises until the 
principle at stake becomes second nature. The acquisition of gram- 
matical facts is, however, a gradual process. The pupil gains in 
language power thru direct and concrete contact, rather than by 
learning empty, meaningless rules and paradigms. He should be 
made to deal with complete phrases, clauses, and sentences rather 
than isolated, disconnected words and syllables. 

(c) Composition. The advocates of the Direct Method advise 
doing no translation from the pupil's native tongue into the foreign 
idiom. They feel that written work in the foreign language, based 
ou material with which the pupil has been made very familiar, 
should be substituted in its stead. Many of our best teachers, how- 
ever, still think that a little .translation into the foreign idiom is 
very beneficial. It often gives definiteness to the instruction. 

(d) Speaking. On account of lack of time, speaking cannot be 
stressed as much as the Direct Method requires. There should, 
however, be a great deal of oral work ; the main purpose of which 



lOo 

should be to train the pupil's ear, to teach him a good pronuucia- 
tion, to develop a feeling for what is cori'ect, to enable him better- 
to appreciate and understand what he reads or chances to hear, and 
to arouses enthusiasm and interest in the work as a whole. With 
such a basis, experience has shown, the pupil will easily acquire the 
art of speaking if opportunity and practice is afforded him. In 
class, our teachers should, however, use the foreign language exclu- 
sively, with the possible exception of concise statements of gram- 
matical principles. 

(e) Reading. The center of our instruction should be formed by 
speakinj*^. The Direct Method postpones the use of the text too 
long, for its advocates require that the pupil first become familiar 
with the spoken idiom. They exefcise great care in the selection of 
the reading material, and we should do the same. If the selections 
are skilfully made, the pupil becomes acquainted with the life, cus- 
toms, aspirations, and ideals of the foreign nation. The aim should 
always be to teach the pupil to read directly, that is, without the 
medium of English. Translation into the pupil's mother-tongue 
should be avoided as much as possible. It should be reduced to a 
minimum. But the teacher must here be clever, well equipped, wide- 
awake and alive; or the i)upils will carry away but hazy notions 
and vague ideas of what they read. Too much should never be taken 
for granted. The books must not be too difficult, too advanced for 
the class. 

It would seem to our advantage, therefore, to use the vivifying 
influence of the so-called Natural Method, the well arranged vocab- 
ularies of the Gouin Method, and many of the excellent features of 
the Direct Method, directing our attention from the very beginning, 
however, to the acquisition of the power to read the foreign language 
without tran.slation. 



(4.) THE PREPAKATION OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

TEACHER 



HOMER H. GAGE, Lock Haven Normal School 
HOWARD R. OMWAKE, Deati of Franklin and Marshall College 



Each speaker recouiuiended a more thoro and complete prepara- 
tion for the teaching of foreign languages, both ancient and modem, 
than college graduates of today possess. They deplored the fact 
that so few- teachers had really had opportunity to make specifie 



306 

preparation for their high school work, and attributed the poor 
results in the field of language largely to this very lack of oppor- 
tunity. 

The following four resolutions were passed: 

(1) Under present conditions the aim and purpose of foreign 
language teaching should be intelligent reading, that is, reading 
without translation, without the medium of English; due regard 
being at all times paid, however, to a good pronunciation, to the 
training of the pupil's ear so that he may understand the language 
when spoken, and to an accurate knowledge of the grammar. 

(2) Foreign languages, both ancient and modern, should be elect- 
ive in the various curricula of the high schools of our State. 

(3) The teachers of modern foreign languages should use an 
eclectic method, the basis of which should be formed by the so-called 
direct method. 

(4) The Department should urge the colleges of our State to 
provide future teachers, and teachers now in service, more specific 
preparation for their profession. A teacher of French, for instance, 
should have carried French as a major during four years in college, 
besides having spent four years upon it during his course in the 
high school. There should be courses of fitting content and courses 
of method. And the minimum preparation for the teaching of a 
modern foreign language should, at all times, include the ability 
to speak and understand the language in question. Since it is 
practically impossible to teach French pronunciation without an 
accurate knowledge of the physiologj^ of the various sounds, col- 
leges should offer courses in phonetics. 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



1. TEACHTNG CITIZENSHIP THROUGH HIGH SCHOOL 
ADMINTSTKATION 



( .1.) JAMES y\. GLASS, Principal, WafihliKjhni Junior nigh School, 

Rochester, .V. Y. 



The Commission on llio Reorganization of Secondary Edncation 
in their bulletin ''The Cardinal Principles" say: "The objectives 
must determine the organization or else the organization will deter- 
mine the objectives." 

The i)hrasing of the topic for discussion recognizes the significance 
of this fundamental principle in administration, namely, "Teaching 
Citizenship through High School Administration" — the objective 
"Citizenship" determines the administration. 

Completing the quotation from Cardinal Principles— "If the 
basis of school administration is that of subjects of study, an over- 
valuation of the importance of subjects will result and the tendency 
will be for each teacher to regard his chief function as that of lead- 
ing students to subject mastery, rather than tliat of using the sub- 
ject of study and the activities of the school as means of achieving 
the objectives of education." 

We cannot overlook or deny the fact that subject content, as a 
factor in high school administration makes a big contribution to 
citizenship training. The wealth of material for teaching good 
citizenship in literature, oral and written English, and in social 
science (history, current events and community civics) is too evi- 
dent to need more than mention. 

Rut subject content does just this one thing — it teaches good citi- 
zenship ideals. It does not guarantee that the teaching functions. 

We and all adults learn to be good citizens by practice in the art 
of citizenship. We may be superlatively wise in comprehension of 
right citizenship, but if we fail to exercise the privilege of citizen- 
ship, we are unworthy of the honorable name of good citizens. 

It is as true of students in school as of adults out of school that 
good citizenship functions in proportion to its actual practice. 

Citizenship training involves a progress step by step. Each step 
must be consciously interpreted before the next higher step can be 
taken. Conscious interpretation comes from experience. There- 
fore, as experience brings to a student's consciousness the signifi- 
cance of concrete acts of citizenship, he progresses from the (\nty 



(109) 



110 

put into practice to the next higher duty, similar in kind, which he] 
comprehends only as part of the content of the teaching he hasj 
received. 

Hence, if citizenship training is to find expression concretely in 
the lives of adolescents, they must enter into the conscious experi- 
ence of being actual citizens and if they are to progress in the art 
of citizenship, application in their individual lives should coincide 
with the teaching step by step. 

Dr. Dewey says: ^'School is not a preparation for life, it is life." 
Adolescent boys and girls want to live, not be taught merely how to 
live. 

Henry Neumann in his "Moral Values in Secondary Education" 
says: "For their period of life the school is or should be the special 
field for their activities as citizens. The proper performance of 
these activities now is the best preparation for the civic duties of 
the years to follow." 

How can a school be organized to serve as "the special field for 
student activities as citizens?" I shall not presume to formulate 
an answer for all schools but attempt to tell you how one school is 
seelving to answer the problem. We believe that each school must 
find its own solution if it would keep thereby its own personality, 
its greatest asset to achievement. 

The school is an organized community with its own corporate 
life. Faculty and student body compose its citizenship, A school 
conceived as a Democracy must never partake of the nature of an 
autocracy or an oligarchy. 

However, self-government in the hands of the inexperienced is a 
dangerous instrument and consequently student participation in 
school control needs the unremitting and sympathetic control of the 
faculty. Teachers become guides in the art of citizenship. They 
both teach good citizenship through subject content — literature and 
history, current events and community civics, and they guide unceas- 
ingly but sympathetically the students' application in the school 
activities. 

Student activities should be given the same dignity of a time 
provision as has always been the case with the school curriculum. 
Here it is particularly true that the objectives determine the admin- 
istration. For, if the time provision is omitted because of the appar- 
ently greater demands, of the curriculum upon the time allotment 
the administration does determine the objective. 

For two years at Washington Junior High School we struggled 
to maintain a schedule for organized student activities by taking 
time from the time allotment of 90 minutes to each of the four 
periods of the day. It was the sad old story of robbing Peter to 
pay Paul, and as usual Peter was justified in his righteous indigna- 



Ill 

tioii. Teachers who would normally and enthusiastically endorse 
student participation in school control became indifferent, if not 
antagonistic because of the theft of time from the recitation and 
.study period. Tlie loss of time averaged for these two years ten 
minutes per period. Fortunately for the salvation of the organized 
activities of the school, we were driven to reform the day's program 
to include a School Activities Period of 35 minutes each day. 

The effect upon the attitude of Faculty and Student body toward 
the school socialization was immediate and we believe in the light 
of two years of actual experience with the new schedule that the 
effect will be permanent. By dignifying organized activities by a 
time provision the school became ''the special field for the students' 
activities as citizens." There came almost at once an expansion 
which can be limited only by the ability to devise and the i»ower to 
find those to whom responsibility may be delegated. 

The school activities Period is used at present as follows: 

Monday 8:30-8:45 — 15 min. 
HOME ROOM ACTIVITIES: 
I — Class Business. 

a. Announcement of weekly activities. 

b. Banking. 

c. Distribution of library books. 

II — Home Room Teacher as Counselor. 

a. Assistance and direction of class officers. 

b. Class cooperation in sthool government. 

c. Establishment of class standard of conduct and courtesy. 

d. Report card conferences. 

e. Vocational Guidance. 

Tuesday 8:30-9:05—35 min. 
STUDENT GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES: 

I — Class Meeting (home room teacher as counselor). 

■ II — Group meeting of student officers. 

Til — Class Meeting (Associate home room teacher as counselor). 

IV— School Community Meeting in assembly (in charge of School 
Community officers). 



112 

Wednesday 8:S0-9:05—S5 win. 
WEEKLY ASSEMBLY PKOGRAM: 

I— Speakers: Public interests, civic progiess, etc. 
II — Faculty programs. 
Ill — ^Demonstration of Club Activities. 
IV — Department exhibitions. 

Thursday J 1:20 11 :56 — •]') miit. 
FACUJiTY ACTIVITIES: 

I — Faculty Meetings. 
II — Conferences (organization of subject teachers in giuups con- 
ducting their own conferences). 
Ill — Demonstration lessons. 
lY — Faculty visits to departments (Y'ocational Cruidance). 

Fridmj 10:55-ll:o0—o5 Min. 
STUDENT CLUB ACTIVITIES: 
I — Direction of Faculty Lea<ler and Club organization. 
II — Membership voluntary. 

Ill — Organization and direction of all clubs in charge of Faculty 
Executive Committee. 

The unit of the student organization is the home room section of 
30 to o5 pupils with the home room teacher acting as counselor. 
Members of the faculty not home room teachers are assigned as 
associate home room teachers, each to two classes. Students coming 
from the single teacher control of the elementary grades are assured 
through the home room teacher guidance the wholesome and sym- 
pathetic influence of a grade teacher over a group for whose welfare 
she feels individually responsible. 

The student officers are elected by their classmates of the home 
room section. Each home room is organized as follows: 

1. President — The chosen leader, the teacher's proxy, assuming 
charge of the class in case of the teacher's absence, presiding officer, 
in class meeting, maintaining class standards in class decorum and 
participation in school plans affecting all classes. He is taught that 
his success as class leader is conditioned upon his ability to delegate 
to classmates and thereby secure contributions to class success and 
honor from all class members. 



118 

2. Vice-president — In adtlitiou to the usual function, the biisiness 
nianager of his class in their participation in both class and school 
community activities; also the Safety First representative in charge 
of Fire Drills, inspecting and remedying fire liazards and menaces 
to sanitation and healtli. 

3. Secretary-Treasurer — Medium of coniuiunication between teaeli- 
ers with each other and the school office, in charge of school reports, 
the class bulletin board, the custodian of class funds and the banker 
of the class on banking days, issuing receipts for deposits in School 
Savings accounts, sale of Thrift stamps, etc. 

4. Usher — The reception committee of one to receive visitors, to 
escort them about the building extending the courtesies of the class 
to all who come to the class room ; tlie class guide leading the class 
about the corridors and upon his own initiative extricating the class 
from corridor congestion. 

5. Depuiy — The teacher's assistant in nmintaining discipline, dis- 
missing the class from recitation rooms, maintaining proper decorum 
in corridor })assing, a strong personalitj' learning valuable lessons 
in control over others and respected in proportion to his ability to 
do it. 

The Tuesday morning class meetings are under the charge of 
class officers. The business of the class meeting is comlucted by 
parliamentary procedure. Vital questions of coaicern to the class, 
though seemingly trifles to the more mature mind, are subjects of 
earnest discussion. The decisions frequently involve personal sacri- 
fice for class or school welfare and by concrete cases such sacrifices 
awaken in tlie student's consciousness the true significance of real 
democracy, — ''The voluntary surrender of some private good foj" the 
up-building of some community good." 

The program of the meeting is in charge of a program committee 
who assign topics for research in the school library. The programs 
cover a range of subjects outside the school curriculum — usually of 
current and public interest — participation in the program is spon- 
taneous and genuine. 

The student officers are further organized into a cabinet of class 
presidents, a council of vice-presidents, etc. under the guidance of 
a Faculty Director. The purpose of the group organization is to 
instruct in the duties of the office, to profit by experience of others 
holding the same office, and to discuss methods of improvement in 
the service rendered the class and the school. 

The honie room sections are federated into one large ^'School Com- 
munity" inclusive of faculty and student body. The relationship 
is that of the states to the nation. The school community meets 

8 



114 

once a month in the assembly under the charge of the community 
otficers. The appeals made to thq student body by student officers 
for loyalty and cooperative service — the school campaigns success- 
fully launched at these meetings — are memories to be cherished and 
never fail to elicit the deep gratitude of the faculty in their capacity 
as administrative officers of the school. 

The functions of student control, when matters of concern with 
the whole student body are delegated to S. C. committees composed 
of the older students. These committees include: 

1. Luncheon Committee — In control of students' luncheon room 
assuming the entire business and conduct management in the dining 
room. 

2. Bicycle Committee — Receiving and distributing bicycles at the 
room provided — initiating and putting into successful execution their 
own jdans to accomplish the purpose orderly and expeditiously. 

S. Messenger Committee — To carry emergency notices to the 
faculty. 

Jf. S. C. Deputies — Assuming charge of student body on school 
grounds, in entering building at dismissals and serving as traffic 
officers in corridor passing. These duties tax the full capacities of 
the strongest students. An efficient S. C. Deputy will not gravitate 
in later life to a subordinate position. He will become a leader 
because he has been trained in leadership. 

Because failure of the class unit in competition with other -classes 
to win honor for the home room results from a disregard of collect- 
ive responsibility, a wholesome regard for cooperative effort is 
implanted in the hearts of boys and girls. To quote from the buUe- 
tion on Vocational Guidance — "Twenty j^ears from now undoubtedly 
the 'spirit of cooperation will permeate vocational life more than 
it does today, and because of that fact school children must acquire 
the spirit of cooperation through the social organization of class 
rooms and school community." 

To quote again from the bulletin ''Moral Values" — "the greatest 
step forward in the pedagogy of character building will be taken 
by those schools that find methods of enlisting everyone of their 
students in activities of cooperative service." 

The student activities are the channels through which the school 
motto "Do in Cooperation" finds its expression. The significance 
of the motto is revealed to students because through conscious con- 
crete experience they learn to grasp its real meaning. 



f 



115 

The motivation of tlie cooperative service of students with each 
other and with the faculty should be that of personal service and 
sacrifice for general or corporate welfare. We have adopted as the 
interpretation of the school motto a quotation from David Gray- 
son's Adventures in Contentment, which when more fully compre- 
hended in later years will find a lodgment in pupils' hearts and 
will becv)me the m./tivating principle of their lives as democratic citi- 
zens. 

"Come to order, says the chairman, and we have here at 
this moment in operation the greatest institution in this 
round world: the institution of free-self-government. Great 
in its simplicity, great in its unselfishness ! The voluntary 
surrender of some private good for the upbuilding of some 
community good: it is in such exercise that the fibre of 
democracy grows sound and strong. There is, after all, in 
this world no real good for which we do not have to surrender 
something !" 

The School Activities period provides for a weekly school assembly 
and for organized student clubs. School loyalty and a school unity 
find their origin and life in the assemblies. Stress is laid upon stu- 
dent participation in the programs; these comprise department 
activities, demonstrations of class meetings, club work, matters of 
public interest, civic and national campaigns. 

The assembly is the school forum, where the school finds its own 
coherence and where contact is made with the larger interests of 
civic, national and international communities. The realization, 
through concrete experiences, of a school community is an assur- 
ance that the consciousness of similar though larger communities 
awakened in adolescence will find expression in maturity through 
active American citizenship. The democrac}^ of the school and the 
democracy of the adult citizenship are paralleled in motivation, 
methods of expression and conscious realization ; they differ only in 
the degree of actual achievement which is, of course, one chief dis- 
tinction between adolescence and maturity. 

Student clubs came into existence as an organized part of student 
activities with the school activities period. They are practically 
impossible on a scale to include the entire student body except under 
a definite time allotment. The scope of the club work is determined 
by the extra-curriculum interests of the students and the ability to 
find club leaders among the faculty. Every student in the school 
is a club member. Membership in some club is required but selec- 
tion of the particular club is wholly voluntary. It is a matter of 
considerable surprise to discover the number of students who have 
not developed the taste for and pursuit of a wholesome extra-cur- 



116 

riculiini activity. The perverted taste for tlie unwholesome outside 
interest is not corrected through deni^.i of its gratification but 
through the substitution of a taste for the wliolesonie interest. 

One of the seven Cardinal Principles is the "worthy use of 
leisure." In explanation the Cardinal Principles saj'^: 

"Every individual should liave a margin of time for tlie 
cultivation of ]>ersonal and social interests. This leisure, if 
worthily used, ^\'ill recreate his jjowers and enlarge aud enrich 
his life, thereby making him better able to meet his responsi- 
bilities. The unworthy use of leisure impairs health, dis- 
rupts home life, lessens vocatiomil efficiency, and destroys 
civic-mindedness. The tendency in industrial life, aided by 
legislation, is to decrease the working hours of large groups 
of people. A>'hile shortened hours tend to lessen the harmful 
reactions that arise from prolonged strain, they increase, if 
possible, the importance of preparation for leisure. In view 
of these considerations, education for the worthy use of 
leisure is of increasing importance as an objective." 

May the day be hastened when we shall cease the attempt to 
justify, but accei)t as an unquestionable administrative obligation, 
the avocational guidance of students in secondary education. 

The clubs include musical activities — glee clubs and choruses. 
School Orchestra and a boys' band; the "Pathfinder" staff editing 
the school paper; athletic organizations of all kinds for boys and 
girls, organized games, hiking, swimming, and drill clubs, a boys' 
military club, a girls' relief corps and athletic teams; literary clubs 
— debating, dramatic, two minute men's club, storytelling and short 
story club, Watch-j'our-speech club; French and Spanish clubs; 
patriotic league for girls; camp fire girls auxiliary club and boys' 
scout patrol leaders training clubs; Science clubs — wild flower, bird, 
chemistry club and general science; travel club and exploration 
club, stamp club and camera club; poultry club, wireless club, kite 
club, first aid club, scrap book club ; many clubs of a vocational 
character utilizing the special equipmeut of the differentiated courses 
on the extension plan — Electricity, Drafting, Steel-working, Cartoon- 
ing, Handicraft, Aero club. Shorthand, Pencil-drawing, Pen-lei tering, 
Knitting, Millinery, Tatting, Embrodiery, Crochet and Girls' Handi- 
craft clubs. 

The club organization is directed by an Executive Committee of 
the faculty. There are 40 clubs with 64 faculty leaders and a mem- 
bership of 1650 students. Each club has its own student organiza- 
tion and club meetings are conducted as are class meetings by stu- 
dent officers with faculty guidance. By reducing the School activi- 
ties period on Monday to 15 minutes, the Friday club period is 
increased to 55 minutes. 



117 

It has been said that ''the secondary school must be organized 
with the idea of giving adolescents so innch of good to do that the 
bad cannot creep in." 

Dr. Thomas H. Briggs gives as one of the vitalizing purposes of 
secondary education — "the teaching of children to do better the 
desirable tilings which they an", bound to do anyway." Students in 
their clubs apply this vitalizing purpose in actual practice. 

Class meetings, S. C. assemblies, officer group meetings and stu- 
dent clubs develop leadership, i)vovides-for the by-products of public 
speaking, teach parliamentary ])ractice and by actual experience 
demonstrate the need of rules to govern discussions, the principles 
<tf representative government are understood in concrete cases as 
appointment of committees, election of officers, and the necessity of 
accepting, without question or protest, the rule of the majority is 
demonstrated by nu)tions aflecting individual privilege. 

Office holding is soon recognized as a resjwnsibility to be fulfilled. 
The honor of the office is soon forgotten in the discharge of its 
duties. An officer's classmates are quick to detect the shirker and 
will administer a reprimand or will remove the offender from office. 

Student management of student activities develoi)s ix)wer of 
initiative, executive ability and business capacity'. 

School socialization and all other school administrative duties 
require the same executive qualifications essential to a successful 
business or industrial executive: (1) organize, (2) deputize, (3) 
supervise. In school administration we are compelled to organize, 
we are urged to supervise, but we frequently forget to deputize. 
And in delegation lies the secret of a successful and comprehensive 
school socialization. The faculty members serving as home room 
counselors, faculty directors of student participation, vocational 
counselors, club leaders in avocational guidance and active jiartici- 
pants in all faculty conferences and committees share the admin- 
istrative duties of the executive head and assure a democratic faculty 
organization. By organization of the class, delegation to the class 
and supervision over the class the teachers in turn train helpful 
administrative power in students. 

In the curriculum teaching the spirit of delegation finds its coun- 
terpart and reflection in supervised study and socialized recitation. 
Hei'e again, the teacher becomes the silent guide of student 
activity, applying to students the principle of delegation while 
reserving to herself the principle of organization and supervision. 

Delegation is not accepted as an administrative device to shift 
responsibility — it finds its justification only in training for power 
in others. It is entirely democratic in conception and effect. Each 
delegated duty provides opporl unity to the executive head, the fac- 



118 

iilty administrator and student officer for another and usually 
greater more vital purpose. The greater the delegation through the 
ranks the more varied the activities of the whole body. 

When delegation is once accepted as the guiding policy of school 
administration, a still higher conception will find birth in the 
administrator's mind: 

(1) Faith in the power of all to give service. 

(2) Inspiration to service. 

(3) Recognition of service rendered. 

This conception of the service of an administrator in his capacity 
as the servant of all makes impossible the autocratic abuse of power 
and becomes the fundamental basis of a general democratic admin- 
istration. 

The school administrator who conceives his highest function to be 
that of a servant to all has laid the corner stone of a school democ- 
racy and citizenship training has its foundation upon which to 
build. It is the rock upon which the house will stand — without it 
the house stands upon the sands and great will be the fall thereof. 

Summarizing the experiences of nearly five years with student 
participation in school control and organized student activities, we 
have learned first and foremost helpful lessons in humility in the 
discovery of latent powers in others brought to expression through 
delegation of responsibility. More particularly we have come to 
accept the following as safe rules for guidance: 

1. Make your own organization — respect the personality of j^our 
own school. 

2. Provide a definite time schedule — dignify school activities by 
a time provision. 

3. Maintain the interest — keep the organization alive — Eternal 
vigilance is the price of success. 

4. Provide for teacher control, sympathetically, never dictatorily. 

5. Have unbounded Faith — and you will find that faith in boys 
and girls is the substance of things seen as well as hoped for. 

G. The School Creed: Since the school is the training field for 
Democracy, Democracy must be the model of the school. 



1]9 



TEACHING CITIZENSHIP THROUGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRA- 
TION 



(h) WILLIAM McANDREW, Associate Superintendent, New York 

City 



Through all the specitic details of the highly iuterestiug school 
doings related by Principal Glass of the Washington Junior High 
School of Rochester gleam the warm light of service for someone 
else. 

Forty years ago last June our high school issued one of those 
abominations of self conceit; the class annual. The first thing in 
it was the picture of us six editors. We blackmailed the town mer- 
chants for useless advertisements. We bludgeoned every pupil and 
teacher into paying a real dollar for a copy of the volume. We 
cleared |56.00. We spent it all on a banquet to ourselves, forty years 
ngo. 

Last June the same crime was committed in a Pennsylvania High 
School. 

Our school glorified little prigs for getting high marks by putting 
their names in print as salutatorian, valedictorian. Our school gave 
prizes and praise to those who had the highest marks in Latin and 
Algebra. It printed in. gold the name of the boy with the highest 
average and hung his tablet on the wall. Pennsylvania High Schools 
are still doing it. 

What is the eflect? Turning the children's attention to self -glory 

Do we need this ? 

The fundamentals of American democracy, the big business of 
schools, are equality, brotherhood, generosity, service for others not 
for self, community spirit, not individual gain, public welfare not 
private satisfaction ; nobility, the essence of which is the absence of 
all self-seeking. 

The motive aroused by prizes, honorable mention, name in print, 
picture in the annual, college degrees, if it has any trace of nobility 
in it is alarmingly susceptible to smother by self-glory, self-conceit, 
self -gratification. 

Pure democracy doesn't blossom into prizes, print, portraits, or 
Ph. D's. 

It is time, that our schools, which are paid for that they may be 
the chief agency of promoting democracy, equality, public, nor pri- 
vate welfare; threw overboard the relics of European appetite for 
personal mention, prizes, medals, prominence, titles. 

It is time for more of us, like Mr. Glass, to devise exercises in 
democracy, fraternity, public mindedness, otherishness instead of 
selfishness. 



120 

Must we wait for a tragic war before we devote our school sj^stems 
to public service, bandages, gift books, contributions to the country? 

Team work for the class; team work for the school is better than 
prize-winning for oneself, but it's only on the way toward the larger 
I»atriotism. 

Let us include in the regular events of the school, affairs that are 
for the benefit of wider areas than that enclosed iu the yard. Let 
us provide that the gate-money of football matches is not so much 
for the team, for the athletic association, for the school. 

Let us include the town library, the hospital, the orphanage, some 
other municipal or county, or state or federal benefit. 

Ditto as to the glee club concert, the dramatic society play, the 
iiiinstrel show, the class party. 

Let a school make baskets and make stabbers on the end of sticks 
and march forth every clear Tuesday and Thursday and spear every 
banana skin and bit of rubbish, put it in the basket and give it to a 
patriotic janitor. 

This is not so much to help the street cleaning department 
(although the best meaning and ablest street-cleaning department 
ought to be helped). This is to give the class exercise in public 
service. Its results are as valuable as the exercise of declining a 
pronoun. 

Have the wood-working class and the art class make ornamental 
signs: "The Jefferson School is helping keej) these streets clean. 
This is our Town." Interest the newspapers in it. 

People in the town, itself, will begin to think more abont their 
own public duties. The town Avill begin to have a more afileetionate 
regard for its school. The town will more joyonsly pay and increase 
its school tax. 

Let the school have an out-door festival, planting trees for the 
town, not for the school. Put a permanent sign on the tree-guard, 
''This tree, presented by the George Washington School, is cared for 
by it. This is our Town." 

Let the botany class raise flowers for the liospital or for the town 
hall. The Michigan Central Railroad raises flowers to give its pas- 
sengers when the train passes through Ypsilanti. 

It is as hard for a school to steep in its own selfishness as it is 
for a man. 

There is also need of giving individual pupils regular lessons in 
public service. 

What is the city paying per year to educate yon, Willie Jones? 

What are you doing for your city? 

Collection of food for the poor at Thanksgiving, collection of 
presents for the poor at Christmas, is not exercising Willie in gen- 
erosity or public welfare. It is exercising Willie's Pa. Through 
Willie's own heart and pocket. 



121 

Let liiui onrn ;i boolc (or tlio town libnivv oi- a pictnve for the poor 
house. 

If you, aud l, and even- public school teacher cannot fill a sheet 
(»f foolscap with details of concrete public service that schools and 
school children can do for their towns, their counties, their states, 
their nation, we have our nerve to draw pay from the community as 
fitters for democracy. 

The heart of youth is instinctively generous. 

(The speaker related stories of spontaneous generosity and sac- 
rifice by school children). 

Tt was the generous heart of American youth that glorified the 
War. 

To neglect to give this spirit practice; to see so many products 
of the public schools develop into profiteers, grafters, tight-wads, 
selfish and sinful spenders, is a sad sight for one who remembers 
that the schools were founded to preserve the American s])irit which 
JetTerson, Lincoln. Roosevelt, declared is fraternal, brotherly, gen- 
erous. 

It is a sad thing to realize that the majority of gifts to our cities; 
monuments, fountains, hospitals, libraries, are from scandalously 
rich men who skimmed the ci'eam from the earnings of lal)orers liv- 
ing in scpialor. 

The loblest olVerings are those monuments, memorials or services 
given by societies, organizations, groups, in which each citizen gives 
from his savings or his labor. 

The Cathedrals have in their structure, built in by thousands of 
common men the work of devoted hearts and hands: 

America may yet aspire to noble structures devoted to the serv- 
ice of people yet to come, civic cathedrals built by the united com- 
mon people. 

The public school jiouse is the most suitable beginning for such a 
fact. Its ornamentation, its repair, could well be made a public 
festival inaugurating a participation of all the ]ieople in actual labor, 
in individual contribution of funds. 

The public school house is the temple in Avhich the solemn rites 
of generous ])ublic service should be celebrated ; not mere relocating 
a salute to a flag or singing a national song, but more than lip 
service. 

Kah-raJi ]tatriotism is immoral. 

Prating of class s])irit and scjiool spirit is nonsense. It is begin- 
ning wrong end to. 

Propose first some big, unselfish, democratic, public spirited 
thing to do, bigger than the clan, bigger than the school, and then 
the school and class spell-binders can shout to some purpose. 



122 

Socrates would not discuss "the good." "Good for what?" he 
asked, "Good for a cold? Good to eat? If you meau good for noth 
iug in particular, I neither know nor do I care to know any such 
thing." 

You know and care to know enough unselfish, generous services 
the active exuberant, high spirited boys and girls can do to make 
the golden days of the high school period shine with lustre. Give 
these youngsters so much of real, expanding, engaging, public serv- 
ice that they will be kept out of silly, window-smashing, red-painting, 
vandalizing, damage to public property. 

Organize your exercises in public service as thoroughly as you do 
your reviews and written tests of the campaigns of that arch anti- 
democrat, J. Caesar, or your puttering puzzles of XY. 

Kealize the force of the words of your great Pennsylvanian, B. 
Franklin; "When it's all over, God will not ask of you, what did 
you know? what did you study? but what did you do, what did 
vou do for mankind?" 



2. GUIDANCE OF THE ADOLESCENT. 



EDWARD RYNEARSON, Director Vocational Guidance, Pittsburgh 



Educational Guidance is only one phase of the larger subject, 
vocational guidance. Our boys and girls while passing through our 
schools should be guided, in the selections of those studies and 
schools that will best supply opportunities to reveal their aptitudes. 

Our stock breeders attempt to develop strength or .speed in horses, 
milk or meat in cattle, and flesh in hogs. Our athletes are trained 
to do their best, to subordinate pleasure, appetite, the desire for a 
good time, to one controlling purpose ; it trains them to get out of 
their bodies every ounce of strength and endurance which they 
])0ssess. If our schools could make young persons acquainted in 
seme similar way with their hidden mental and moral poAver what a 
mighty force would one generation become! 

These boys and girls have great potentialities and the work of the 
school is to make these become actualities. No doubt but there is 
in your school and mine boys and girls with native endowments of 
gonius and leadership waiting to be aroused. The sympathetic, wide- 
awake teacher has enabled many men and Avomen to discover them- 
selves. 

Educational guidanre. therefore, is the conscious arrangement of 
the stimuli of the school, of the extra-curriculum activities, of as 
many influences as possible that will call into action all the inherited 
powers. This should precede, and assist in, vocational guidance. 



The properly jirrangerl ciirrioulum is one factor in revealing (he 
iikes and dislikes of the child. Not only will the child discover him- 
self but he may find out some things he must do in order to attain 
the coveted place. A boy who is wealv in mathematics and who 
wishes to be an engineer will perceive that lie must give more time 
and thought to his weak points. 

The junior high school with its dilterent courses otlers an unusual 
opportunity for self discovery to the pupils in the seventh grade. 
Prevocational courses at this period are valuable to the pupils. 
Parents and teachers have an unsurpassed opportunity' to observe 
the appearances of jwssible future vocations. These trying-out 
courses should not be confined to the industrial courses. 

Our guidance must sot be narrow or short sighted. Many voca- 
tions should be studied. The choices of j'^oung pupils should gen- 
erally be between wide fields of activity and not between specific 
vocations at first. 

The adolescent should not be kept with smaller and you:iger 
children too long. We have not always given the over-age, over- 
sized boy or girl a fair chance. Many of these drop out of school 
because they are ashamed to be in graded classes with smaller and 
younger children. Sometimes teachers unconsciously embarrass 
these tall, lanky pupils by referring to their retardation. Our state 
could assist these pupils by urging our secondary schools to arrange 
courses suitable to the capacity and need of this group. 

We ought to be perfectlv honest in telling children that they 
ought not to expect to reach a high degree of success in any vocation 
for which they could not afford time for adequate initial prepara- 
tion, or for which they did not possess the necessary general intel- 
ligence (rh revealed by tests and surveys) to compete on an equal 
basis with the majority of the people now goingi into the vocation. 

The positive values of the curriculum as a method of guidance 
have been presented. Have you ever thought that sometimes the 
course of study and, what is often more powerful, the course of 
instruction have misguided pupils? The boys and girls of our rural 
schools have pursued courses of study modeled so closely after those 
of the city and have been taught by so many city trained teachers 
that they have unconsciously been drawn to the cities and away 
from the farms through the ideals held up before them. This is 
being remedied now by our state department but it does show the 
•power of the curriculum in guiding boys and girls. 

The extra-curriculum activities of the school, when projjerly 
guided and guarded, are tributaries to the great, broad current of 
culture and knowledge. These activities should be made the basis 
of organizations where the relations of the individual to society 



124 

and of the society to tlie individual may be learned at first hand. 
The activities should be so planned that they reveal tendencies. 
They ofifer almost nnlimited opportunities for giving contacts with 
different phases of adult activities. These organizations, with the 
possible exception of athletic games, should be held in the school 
buildings and during periods set apart for this work. In this way 
teachers can assist, ]»npils will be punctual and regular in attend- 
ance, and the activities are under the jurisdiction of the school. 

The assembly with its many-sided programs, is a third injportajit 
factor in guidance. 

The part-time school has come to stay. There are many strong 
arguments for it. The pupils A\ho are out in the real vocations 
have a chance to measure themselves for the work. Our ])art-time 
classes in stenography, in salesmanshij), in machine shop bring back 
to the school many suggestions to the teachers. The pupils have 
breathed the atmosphere of the work-r.-day world. 

Two million boys and girls between the ages of 14 and lO are 
our annual sacrifice of devotees to juvenile jobs, most of which 
(87%) belong to the ''blind alley" variety. These, according to 
reports from juvenile and adult courts, furnish most of our crim- 
inal, social, and labor problems. Even from money i)oint of view 
it would be cheaper to enforce school attendance laws and to jiro- 
vide training a(lai)ted to the needs and capacity of the youth, than 
to bear the higher cost of correction and punishment later. Penn- 
sylvania should establish guidance «lepartments in all of our schools 
as well as to ni'uc e:u-h community to make a survey of its voca- 
tions, the educational requirements to fill these, the chances for 
promotion, the health conditions, etc. 

Closely dovetailed with the survey of vocations must be the cu- 
mulative records of the pupils from the fifth grade to the time of 
leaving school. These will not only be the scholastic records but 
also the teachers' estimates of other traits wanted by the employers. 
Tf pupils know that their habits of industry may decide their ])osi- 
tion, they may put forth a greater effort to meet the standards. 

Intelligence tests are valuable in the measurement of general in- 
telligence. The special abilities which so largely influence success 
in the majority of vocations have not yet been satisfactorily analyzed, 
much less measured. If we can find out all the essentials of fitness 
to fulfill a certain task and also to know the abilities of persons under 
consideration we may be able to adjust the work and the worker. 

While placement does not come under educational guidance it 
does help us to get data for the work. 

One of the strongest factors in schools, churches, and life in gen- 
eral is the life-career motive. How this motive lightens the work 
of the teacher and puts new life and inspiration into the pupil ! The 



125 

life career should not be chosen before the seventeenth or eighteenth 
year. Don't specialize too soon. "You cannot build an intensive 
knowledge of one thing upon an extensive ignorance of all things." 

While educational guidance should assist in vocational guidance 
we must not lose sight of its great value in preparing for the avoca- 
tions, — all the duties of life, including duties as a member of the 
family, the community, the state, and other social groups. To 
assume a negative attitude on the question of one's avocation is 
often to destroy one's etticiency in his vocation. To shorten the 
h»)urs of labor without enriching the life of Ihe laborer is to give 
liim more hours in which to lower his vitality and morals. Shall the 
Ijours of leisure promote (Miliglitenmont, cidture, and [»rogress, or 
promote degeneracy, depravity, and decay? The one encourages the 
beautiful in music, art, ;nid literature; the olbor seeks satisfaction 
in prize tights nnd the common vices. 

The I'esponsibility for the educational guidance of the boys and 
girls does not rest upon any one person oi* department. Until 
teachers, principals, and all tliose connected with the educational 
interests of our great Comuumwealth do their best to see that every 
child is given a fair opportunity to become actually what he is 
potentially, we have not disclmrged our full responsibility. While 
this is our duty as educators, Carlyle, on being installed rector of 
I'niversity of Edinburgh in 186G, told the students Aviiat "a man is 
born to, in all epochs. He is l>orn to expend every particle of 
strength that God Almighty has given him, in doing the Avork he 
finds he is fit for; to stand up to it t(. the last hnntli of life, and 
to do his best." 



:;. WHAT SHOUIJ) CONSTITUTE A KEGULAK FOUK YEAKS 
HIGH SCHOOf. COURSE? 



WILLIAM McANDREWS, As.sociatc Supcrintindcnt, Xcw York City 



Fellow Citizens: The moderator designates twenty-eight minutes 
for this discourse. He does not know the tenor if it. He is in no 
way responsible for any sentiment uttered in it. lie has merely 
set the question: "What should constitute a regular four years 
course?" 

This question suggests what different ages have regarded as the 
purpose of schools. 

The ancient Hebrews would say "To teach the scriptures." 

Plato and the Greeks : "To develop the whole man." 



]2G 

The Romans: ''To impart useful knowledge." 

The Monks: "To traverse the trivium and quadrivium." 

The leaders of the Renaissance: "To enjoj^ the classics." 

The promoters of the Reformation: "To advance the true religion." 

The Jesuits: "To discipline." 

The professor: "To fit for college." 

The eminent high school advocates of my boyhood days: "To give 
a broad, deep, sound scholarship ;" "To train the mind, to develop 
leaders, to illustrate the survival of the fittest." 

The ordinarj^ high school teacher: "To cover the course of study." 

The average citizen: "To fit my child to get on in the world and 
to rise above the common herd." 

But is there not some specific, authoi-itative statement of those who 
were responsible for making American public schools an agency of 
government, supported by money taken from everybody whether 
he has children or not? 

Let Franklin say what public schools are for: "To supply suc- 
ceeding ages with men that will serve the public welfare." 

Washington: "To enlighten public opinion." 

John Adams: "To instruct the people in knowledge useful in the 
practice of the moral duties of a man and citizen." 

Monroe: "To qualify society, in every district, to discharge with 
credit and effect those great duties of citizens on which free govern- 
ment rests." 

Madison: '*To arm with the power of knowledge a people who mean 
to be their own governors." 

Jefferson: "To enable the people to understand what is going on 
in the world and to keep their part of it going on right." 

Whatever propositions aft"ecting the establishment of public edu- 
cation I can read in the speeches, letters, and essays of the leaders 
of that Revolution which established our nation, do not logically 
lead to the scriptures, the Avhole man, useful knowledge, triviums, 
quadriviums, the classics, religion, discipline, college-preparation, 
scholarship, mental training, leadership, course of study, or getting 
on in the world, as the purpose of American public schools. 

But the aims proposed for American schools b}^ these founders 
of our democracy do mean service, enlightened opinion on public 
questions, knowledge useful in the practice of the moral duties of 
men and citizens, ability to discharge the duties of citizens with 
credit and effect, knowledge necessary to people who govern them- 
selves, knowledge of what is going on in the world and desire to 
make one's part of it go on right. 



127 

8o far as 1 kuow everybody believes that the builders of our 
Republic intended to establish a society quite different and quite 
better than any then cou5=tituted. They were unequivocally certain 
that they ought to state the general principles underlying their plan. 
They put them in the two fundamental documents on which all our 
national policies rest : the Declaration and the Constitution. Having 
stated these principles, having founded a nation upon them, it was 
inevitable that they should turn their attention to the means of 
keeping these ideals alive from generation to generation in order tliat 
the blessings the people had gained might not, through ignorance 
or carelessness, be taken away. It must have been apparent to every 
man of that time, who looked into the future, that provision should 
be made specifically to develop public opinion, to train to self-gov- 
ernment, to educate each rising generation in the duties of citizens. 
One would expect Franklin, Washington, Madison, Monroe, Jeffer- 
son, and other leaders, to express themselves on this subject. One, 
looking back from now, would expect a department of education to 
have been made a feature of the general government, just as a post 
office department was. But the student who examines those days 
knows how desirous public men were to recognize the rights of the 
individual states which joined the union. We can in this fact find 
sulficient explanation why the leaders contented themselves with 
expressing the common opinion as to what schools ought to do. 

When one reviews the subsequent barren years of American educa- 
tion; when one recalls the heart- wearying struggles of Horace Mann, 
Henry Barnard, and Daniel Pierce ; when one blushes at the criminal 
carelessness resulting in the loss of state school funds; when one 
surveys the appalling records of American adult illiteracy ; when one 
contemplates the long period of neglect of training in the very nunli 
ties to cultivate which is the fundamental reason for maintaining 
public schools; one wishes that the inter-colonial jealousies had been 
mild enough to have permitted a truly national provision for school- 
ing, organized by such a man as Franklin or Jefferson. There 
would, then, have been written, I think, into the fundamental school 
law, as these men wrote into the great Declaration, a statement of 
what this school business is all about. Perhaps we should now not be 
in the position that causes an eminent professor of education in our 
most famous university to hear quoted so often his now famous 
sentence: "The American High School has all sails set and doesn't 
know where it's going." The New Jersey high-school teachers an- 
nounced as their subject for discussion "The High Schools, a Chaos." 
A former president of a large city's Board of Education calls his 
high schools: 'The Blind Men's Bluff." Editorials in what are com- 
monly regarded as leading newspapers voice a doubt as to the service 
the high schools proffer; md the great State of Pennsylvania, almost 



128 

a ceutury aud a half after the nation was born and its founders had 
said you must keep alive its democracy by training the people for 
self-government, — a hundred and forty-three years after that event, 
the great State of Pennsylvania puts to an assembled company of 
school men a fundamental consideration, not as a fact, but as a 
question: "What should constitute a regular four years course of an 
American public high school?" 

Pottstown, Norristown, Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, answer it, other 
cities, towns, aud communities, answer it, in almost identical terms. 

\Vhere did they get the answer? Did any person or company of 
[)ersons in Pottstown, Norristown, Scranton, or Wilkes- P>;u)-e s;iy. 
"Hei'e we have several thousand childro)i bet\Aeeii tlve ages of foiir- 
U'cu and twenty-one years of age who mnst l»e (rained to <lefend, 
purify, and perpetuate American principles; let us devise a set of 
daily studies and exercises by which all of these young people may 
be titled to exercise that duty?" Was the regular four-years course 
in Pottstown or Norristown, Wilkes-Barre or Scranton, devised for 
such a purpose? Was the regular four-years course of the New 
York high schools devised for such a purpose ? Was there any inquiry 
in these cities? "What do our adolescent children most need to 
make citizens of them?" "What work is most adapted to do this?" 
It is doubtful. You have seen high-school courses made. A committee 
assembles; different members have assortments of pamphlets before 
them ; courses of study from different cities. After more or less 
haggling, a course of study emerges, nineteen-tAventieths copy, one- 
twentieth invention and the whole thing, if it has any purpose at 
all, might be connected in some degree with a Greek purpose: to 
develop the whole man. or with a Roman purpose: to impart useful 
knowledge; or with a Renaissance purpose: to interpret the classics; 
or with a Jesuitical purpose: to discipline; or with a savant purpose: 
to give scholarship; or with the traditional high school man's pur- 
pose: to illustrate the survival of the fittest. But to connect the 
standard course adequately with the fundamental, historical Ameri- 
can purpose; the preparation of a citizen for actual citizenship, re- 
quires a forced .reasoning that a great many people cannot success- 
fully rationalize. 

The imitative aspects of the course are too evident. Wilkes-Barre's 
looks so much like Pottstown's; Pottstown's so much like Norris- 
town's; Norristown's so much like New York's; that even the ama- 
teur archeologist recognizes, in spite of a few variations, the ori- 
ginal type ; and traces it to one or another Atlantic seaport in one 
of the thirteen colonies, and thence, direct to the England of James, 
(*f Charles, of William and Mary, or of Queen Anne. 



129 

! 

I And there he finds it to be the course designed for young gentle- 
len, the elite, the leisure class. He finds it in a society which links 
iie two words "gentleman and scholar" together, a class which does 
,3 work with the hands; a class which by means of laws of prim- 
ijeniture, of entail of titles of nobility, preserves its distinction. Its 
lucation aims at polite learning, at familiarity with classes, at 
I'fiuements of grammar and rhetoric, at ability to compose with 
e pen, but not at the equipment of the mass of the people to have 
ijvoice in public affairs. The origins ol culture and education came 
I us from England ; they came to England from an ancient civiliza- 
jon That had little regard for the couiuu)n man. This legard, as 
.understand it, was made a basal idea of the American plan, em- 
liasized through successive epochs by a Jefferson, a Jackson, a 
jincoln. Eut the education existing before the Revolution was not 
1 this sort. It was the education which the colonies imported with 
jieir wines, their silks, uiid witli their Chippendale furniture. This 
the system of education which remained the core of high school 
u.Iies up to our own time. There was a Revolution in political 
jeals. There was no revolution in educational ones. 
,|If one's conception of a high school education is that of refined 
iholarship, i)reparation for leisure, mental discipline, superiority 
' the common run of men, one should choose for a regular course 
lich studies as an; remote from the everyday affairs of life; Latin, 
'feebra, college professors' English, ancient history, studies as an 
linent Columbia professor has said, which "induct a chosen or 
krthy few into a specially trained patriciate, an aristocracy of 
:ains." Such a school may without concern see in its community 
percent of the children of high-school age go into the world un- 
iicated, unhelped, meeting the problems of adult citizenship with 
!y the training of children. Such a school may calmly view its 
mbers willingly drop by the wayside, unable or undesirous of pur- 
ng its studies farther. 

ff one's conception of a high school is that of a government agency 
on which the obligation rests to care for all the children from 
irteen to twenty-one years of age and to fit them to preserve and 
jprove American institutions to the intent that all the people may 
proach the ideal of living happily and nobly together, one must 
Ik elsewhere than in the origin of our high school education for 
ideals. 

have intimated that those ideals are political, rather than literar\' 
scholastic, thnt our school system is made n public expense on 
of the people in order that the democracy which the Fathers 
oed for may be realized. I have intimated that these ideals are 
mulated in our public documents, notably in the Declaration and 
the Constitution. If this is true then a logical way to arrive 



at a regular four years course would be to set dov>^n the pui'poses: 
which the proponents of our national ideals and the advocates of 
perpetuating them by education expounded. I have repeated the 
views of Franklin, Washington, Adams, Monroe, and Jefferson. These 
ideals were enumerated in the State papers T have referred to. These i 
ideals include: 

Equality. 

The right to life. 

The right to liberty. 

The right to the pursuit of happiness. 

The right to alter or abolish any government destructive of* 
these rights and to establish, but not for light or transient 
causes, a new government designed to secure safety and hap- 
piness. 



The duty to form a more perfect union. 

The duty to establish justice. 

The duty to insure domestic tranquility. 

The duty to provide for the common defense. 

The (iuty to promote the general welfare. 

The duty to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
our posterity. 

It is significant that within the past ten years Rabbi Hirsch has 
said that our plan of education has wofully neglected to realize these 
hopes of the fathers; that Charles Eliot has affirmed that we are 
not devoting ourselves to the production of men who think public 
mindedly that Andrew S. Draper declares that we have wasted the 
lives of the children; that Theodore Roosevelt deplores education's 
neglect of an essential stress upon public education for public benefit 
not for individual advancement; that Julius Sachs, Columbia Pro 
fessor of high school training, has declared that a storm of protesi 
assails the high schools. 

If we should put aside all our machinery and think of educatior 
as helping young people to change from what they are to what th( 
general welfare demands they ought to be, if we could think o 
American education not in terms of European-planned schools, th( 
result would have, at least, the American purpose as primary, pre 
ponderating, predominating, not incidental and stuck on. 

T cannot conceive that a general course of this kind would reac 
as one big Pennsylvania city's course does: "First year. English, Al 
gebra. Language, General Science," or as another's "First year 
English. Algebra, Language, Ancient History or Biology, choose on< 
elective," or as another's "Latin, Algebra, Arithmetic, Grammar Com 



131 

position and Classics," or as any of the courses of prominent cities of 
Pennsylvania or New York or any other state announcing regular 
courses which make prominent and most important studies like 
Latin, or language, or algebra, or English required by colleges. 

The teacher who can do the main big business of training citizens 
to think on vital public questions, using as the means of such train- 
ing exercises in Latin, algebra, geometry, natural science, modern 
language, rhetoric, polite literature, drawing, English, selected by 
college entrance boards, stenography, shop work, or physical training 
is as rare a genius as that prodigy of strength and adjustment who, 
with a jaw bone, slew his thousands. 

These subjects never were put into education for the training in- 
tended by the founders of the nation who urged that education be 
a public charge. 

To tuck into the fourth year as do hundreds of high schools, "U. S. 
history and citizenship, elective twice a week," is, I think lamentably 
and criminally to side-step the chief duty of American public edu- 
cational service. 

Let us have: 

First year: Principles of American citizenship, enough times a 

week. 
First year: Public Problems. Use as the textbook some weekly pub- 
lications giving various views, a publication like the 
Independent, The Literary Digest, or The Outlook 
enough times a week. 
First year: Principles and practice of conduct enough times a week. 
Fill the balance of the first year with such subjects as best prepare 
the 3^oung man and woman to enjoj' the rights and perform the 
duties of an American citizen ; include a practical course in the way 
to use one's mind in getting such an education. 



Principles of American Citizenship; 

Public Problems; 

Personal conduct; economics; as many times 
a week as it is possible for the interest to 
be kept alive and effective. Fill the balance 
of the time with such subjects as may be 
^ shown! to be most efficient in preparing 
young men and women to enjoy the rights 
and to perform the duties of an American 
citizen. 



Second year: 

Third year: 

Fourth year: 

Fifth year: 
up to 21 years 
of age. The 
upper years to 
be grouped in 
a higher insti- 
tution if con- 
ditions war- 
rant it: 

I can see by the expression on various faces how absurd this man 
and that regard this proposition. 



132 

Yet, I feel sure that I can defend it as based on reason, as based 
on fundamental American thought, and as based on the need of the 
times. 

But, it means throwing into the scrap-heap machinery in which a 
lot of money has been invested, material which tradition and use 
have made dear to tlie majority of scholars. It means the introduc- 
tion of tools which the most of us don't know how to use. It means 
a school war in which the innovator will risk his professional life. 

A common comment vv^ill be "It can't be done." 

Very well, let us go ahead and do it. 

We have been doing it by degrees. 

Present conditions require that Me do more of it and lor more 
people. 



4. STANI)ARDIZI:N'G the GEADlIsG A2s^D PKOMOTION OF 
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS 



GEO. WHEELER, Asfiociate Superintendent, Philadelphui 



In order to standardize grading and promotion it is necessary to 
determine the basic idea underlying promotion. We use the expres- 
sion "promotion" loosely. In subjects that are logically consecutive 
"promotion" does mean, as the derivation indicates, "moving for- 
ward" from one phase to another of a given study. But most sub- 
jects are not of this nature. Two subjects may be more or less related 
to each other, but neither one maj^ necessarily precede or follow the 
other. What we are concerned with under the expression "promo- 
tion" is not primarily the moving forward, but the satisfactory ac- 
complishment of the work in hand. Keeping this meaning in mind, 
a student should be promoted when he has done the work in hand 
so well that he will derive more value from taking up new work than 
he would from repeating his study of the old subject. 

You will note that I speak of each subject of study and not of the 
whole group of studies which a student may be carryTng at a given 
time, for I assume that no one in this group would advocate any 
other method of promotion in the high school than promotion by 
subject. 

For effective and economical instruction the students are organized 
into instruction groups known as classes or sections, each in charge 
of a teacher. Class instruction is most effective when all members 
of the class are sufficiently near the same point of advancement to 



198 

beuelil by one tjpe of preseiitatiou. In n well organized school the 
classes are so constituted at the beginning of the- term, but since 
students vary in their rates of progress differences begin to develop 
at once. At the end of a month these differences are commonly quite 
evidenl. By the end of a term they become so great that reorganiza- 
tion is necessary in order that the work in each class may once more 
be adapted to every student in the group. Thus regarded, promotion 
is not rewaid and noupromotion is not punishment. 

Since promotion i« commonly determined either wholly or largely 
by the ratings that are g'iven to the students during the term, it is 
a matter of importance to get dependable ratings. Promotion is too 
serious a matter to the student to permit ratings to be dependent on 
whim, carelessness, idiosyncracy, ignorance of conditions, or unrea- 
sonable standards. The rating should be a true index of the student's 
attainments. 

Of course there will be differences in ratings under normal condi- 
tions. The ratings given in two schools of equal rank, in parallel 
classes in the same subject, in the same class in two different sub- 
jects are certain to vary if they represent conditions truly. This 
must be so since students differ in ability, subjects vary in difficulty, 
teachers are unlike in skill, and a multitude of other variables operate 
against uniformity. Hut examination of ratings where there has 
been no adequate effort at standardization will reveal variations which 
have no justihable basis for their existence. 

In certain schools whose records I examined recently it is the 
custom to exempt from final examination students whose ratings for 
the term have been satisfactory and to examine those Avho have left 
some doubt of their fitness for promotion. Some of the variations 
found in these records gave plain evidence of the lack of a uniform 
basis for determining the promotion of students. In a given subject 
one school required 5o percent of its pupils to take the final examina- 
tion while another school examined but 7 percent. In another subject 
one school promoted 21 percent without examination and 57 per- 
cent by examination, while in another school 83 percent j)assed 
without examination and 2 percent by examination. In one class 
of a given school ever}' pupil was examined and SS percent passed, 
while in another class in the same subject in the same school the 
only pupils who passed were those who were excused from examina- 
tion, and the percentage of promotion was 86. It is evident that in 
these cases there was no common basis for determining exemption or 
promotion. 

The first step in standardizing rating is to know what ratings are 
being given. A summary of the ratings given to each class, showing 
in compact form the range of marks and the proportion of pupils 
with satisfactory recoids will usually furnish sufficient da (a to cn^ 
able the principal or the bead of the department to determine which 



teachers are and which are not marking wisely. The remedy for 
unwise marking lies mainly in conference between the principal and 
the teachers. Sometimes these conferences should be with groups of 
teachers, sometimes with individuals. The teacher may need instruc- 
tion in methods of marking quite as much as in methods of teaching. 
In many subjects it is possible to give uniform tests which wUl 
reveal to the teacher who is too lenient or too rigid in marking, how 
his students really compare with those of other teachers. Some 
demonstration of this kind is not infrequently necessary to convince 
teachers that their ratings need modification. 

I doubt whether any reports should be sent to parents or any 
ratings be finally recorded, until the head of the department or the 
principal has received and examined the summaries of ratings to 
which I have referred. A report to the parents should be as accurate 
a statement of actual conditions as it is possible to secure. Further- 
more, the ratings set down on the school records from time to time 
should indicate truly the progress which the pupil is making. The 
teacher must never lose sight of the foct that each mark set down 
should have a bearing on the question of the student's promotion. 

Occasionally we find people who have an idea that the rating which 
is fixed for passing determines the standard of work required for 
promotion. I have heard schoolmen say with much satisfaction that 
whereas in other schools pupils who attain a mark of 70 are pro- 
moted, '*in my school no pupil is promoted under 85." As a matter 
of fact the numerical basis of promotion has very little influence 
on standards of work. In determining the mark to be given in most 
subjects the mental process is a follows. "Is this pupil doing work 
which entitles him to promotion ?" If the answer is "Yes," the pupil 
is given the necessary promotion mark. If 70 is required, he is given 
70 or more, and if 85 is required he is given 85 or more. To raise 
the passing mark from 70 to 85 does not raise the standards any 
more than a boy increases his wealth by raising the price of his dog 
|5.00 and keeping the dog. 

This discussion of grading and promotion may seem to be concerned 
with the machinery of education rather than with the instruction of 
the student, but if I have made my thought clear, the student has 
been kept in mind all the way through. All of this care in regard 
to ratings during the term and to the promotion of the pupil at the 
end of the term has for its purpose the student's educational interests. 

The standardizing of ratings is therefore not an unimportant 
function of the Principal. It is one of the factors which makes the 
organization over which he presides a school instead of an aggrega- 
tion of classes. The old saying, "As is the teacher so is the school," 
ceased to be true w^hen the little red school house with one teacher 
gave way to our modem large buildings with a corps of many 
teachers. The influence of the principal should be felt in every class 



136 

room. He can do something by his personal observation and contact, 
but much must be done through the regulations he establishes and 
: enforces. Since the whole purpose of promotion is to place pupils 
'! where the next term's work may be of most value to them, and since 
I ratings during the term have an important bearing on promotion, 
j it is evident that the wise control of these matters is deserving of the 
I careful attention of every jjrincipal. 



HOW SHALL THE GKADING AND rROMOTlON OF HKJH 
SCHOOL PUPILS BE STANDARDIZED? 



S. H. LAYTON, Superintendent of i^choola, Altoona. 

In my own thinking upon this aspect I have dealt more particularly 
with the standardization for the entire state of Pennsylvania rather 
than with any local system. 

I should not urge standardization if 1 felt that standardization 
would lead merely to uniformity. I do not believe that we can afford 
to hinder individual initiative and fail to consider individual dif- 
ferences. I think rather that I should discuss the matter of stand- 
ardization with the idea of evaluation rather than uniformity. We 
can, I believe, evaluate different schools and the work in different 
schools to an advantage without in any way insisting upon uniform 
conditions within the schools themselves. 

The first step toward standardization is in the rules concerning the 
attendance of pupils themselves. There is no uniform rule over the 
state concerning the treatment of withdrawals from schools. In 
some cases five days' absence is counted a withdrawal, and other 
schools vaiy in important particulars from this plan. If there could 
be a uniform rule to follow then the percents of attendance as indi- 
cated in reports wonld determine the real status of attendance in 
the schools reporting. 

The second important step in standardization is in setting up 
definite aims in the teaching of the various subjects. There is today 
great variety and extreme vagueness in the aims which teachers 
would give in the various subjects. A clear discrimination between 
the "training function" of the teacher and the "educating function" 
of the teacher should be made. How much of each of these functions 
is to be had in each recitation, how definitely the goal in each can 
be reached; these are all leading toward a standarizatiou of the 
teaching and of the school. 



136 

Tlie third important step iu stiuidardizatiou is in the classifying of 
the high school itself. In {Section 1701 of the Code first-class highi^ 
schools must have a four years' course, nine months' school and three 
qualified teachers. A second class high school must have a three | 
years' course, eight months' school with two qualified teachers. In 
the third class high school the law specifies that a two years' course 
is the only defining standard. Each class is determined by the length 
of its shortest course. To properly standardize high schools there 
should be a specific requirement for a minimum training of teachers, 
for the mawitnuiH number of students per class, ^tov the lihrary equip- 
ment, for the laboratory equipment and as to methods of teaching 
themselves under very rigid state inspection. 

The fourth step in standardization is to get away from mere teacher 
judgment, mere opinion in the grading of students in the subjects. 
1 need not repeat here the well known facts as to how judgment 
dift'fiers in grading the same paper. We need therefore to come to 
the use of intelligence tests in high schools as the colleges and uni- 
versities are coming to the use of these tests. The Army Alpha Test 
has revealed the importance of this kind of work and something 
similar may be followed out to advantage in the high schools them-, 
selves. We need also to use more largely the standard tests that! 
iiave already been developed for the different subjects of the high 
school. In English we have Starch's \''ocabulary Test, the Trabue 
Completion Tests, Starch's (xrammatical Test, the Silent Reading! 
Tests by Monroe or Courtis, and Thorndike's Scale Alpha for Measur-* 
ing the Understanding of Sentences. In Algebra we have Coleman's 
Scale for testing ability in Algebra, Holtz's First Year Algebra 
Scales, Monroe's Standard Kesearch Test in Algebra, Stromquest's 
Preliminary Algebra Tests, Rugg and Clark's Standard Tests in First 
Year Algebra, Thorndike's Algebra Test. In Latin we have Brown's 
Connected-Latin Test, Latin Sentence Test, and Formal Latin-Vocab- 
ulary Test, Brown's Formal Latin Grammar Test and Brown's Func- 
tional Latin-Grammar Test, Hanus' Latin Test, Henraan's Latin Test. 
In French we have Starch's French Vocabulary and Reading Test. 
In Geometry we have Minnich's Geometry Test, Rogers' Mathematical 
Tests, Stockard and Bell's Geometry Test. lii Physics Starch's Test 
in Physics. In Physical Training Rijpeer's Scale for Measuring Physi- 
cal Education. In Drawing Rugg's Scale for Measuring Freehand 
Lettering. In History Sackett's Scale in American History, Sack- 
ett's Scale in Ancient History, and Harlin's Test for Information in 
United States History. Here we have a beginning, both for measur- 
ing the mechanics and the content of subjects, and this will grow as 
the demand increases. By the more general use of these tests for 
promotion purposes we shall get away from the mere personal judg- 
ment of the teacher of the subject. The standard tests are imper- 
sonal and social and give splendid opporttinity for estimating and 
comparing the results of the schools. 



137 

Tlie tilth «tep, which 1 would suggest, is the more extended use 
of both the quantitative and qualitative credit. How long a subject 
is studied must determine somewhat the quantity of credit to be 
given, but there should be in addition to this a plan of credit either 
on the Pittsburgh plan, the Kansas City, Kansas plan or some other 
equally good qualitative credit plan. In the Pittsburgh plan there 
is a grouping of the work of the students under five groups. A, B, C, 
D and E. The C group is the basic group. They are expected to 
master the essentials of the subject. The B group must master the 
essentials an<l show some power of original application. The I) 
group must gain fair mastery of the essentials. A credit 
of 1 is given the C group, a grade of 1.2 is given the A group for ex- 
ceptional proficiency. In the Kansas City plan there are three grades. 
Grade 1 for 95% perfect work wins 1.2 credit, grade 2 for 85% perfect 
work wins 1.1 units credit. Grade 3 for 75% perfect work wins 1 
unit credit. You will readily see that by this scheme a student 
making Grade 1 tliroughout his course, carrying five subjects, for 
three years, will gain 18 credits. The use of the qualitative plan 
should put special empliasis upon the defining of the aims of instruc- 
tion. It is therefore wise to announce beforehand the very definite 
aims wliich students are to be graded upon. Tests will then have a 
more specific purpose in testing upon this definite objective. There 
is also advantage in thus setting up these definite aims for the 
(eachers of one department, and tliere is also splendid facultj'^ co- 
operation required to bring about this efficiency. 

These live aims then, in my judgment, will bring about a stand- 
ardization on the basis of evaluation of the various school systems 
of Pennsylvania without robbing them of their local initiative as 
systems or tlie individual students of their initiative. 



HOW CAN THE AIMS AND 1»UBP0SES OF lA^STKUCTlON 
BE ]\[ADE MORE VITAL IX ACTUAL PRACTICE? 



THOMAS H. BRIGGS, Teachers College, ColumUa University, N. Y 



First, hij acceptiruj aims that are in themselves vital. The aims 
learned in some*philosophies of education and mechanically quoted 
afterAvard are unfortunately for the most part not pragmatic — that 
is to say, they do not guide us to correct action. What is needed in 
education is a sort of golden rule which will guide without restricting, 
which will force us to honest thinking about conditions and pupils 
as they are, freeing us from practices that have no warrant other 
tlian tradition. Sucli a }>ragmatic statement of purpose will insure 
that nil the good in ])ast or present practice will be preserved ; more- 
over it will free and encourage us to make desirable changes. 



196 

No statement of purpose ha» value, theu, unless it guide and stim- 
ulate one to action. Altkough it is recognized that this principal 
may justify a different set of aims for each individual, the following 
are proposed as suggestive: — 

— The first duty of the school is to train pupils to perform 

better the desirable activities that they are likely to perform 
anyway. 

Another duty of the school is to reveal higher types of 
activity and to make them both desired and to an extent pos- 
sible. 
Acceptance of these theses incurs the obligation to list by inventory 
the desirable knowledges, attitudes, prejudices, skills, and habits 
which men and women have and should have in our democracy. It 
necessitates our incorporating these into our courses of study, as 
rapidly as we may with effectiveness. 

Second, hy increasing the amount and effectiveness of skilled super- 
vision of instruction. Outside of teaching and of routine clerical 
duties, from which he should be largely relieved, a principal directly 
or through assistants, should administer the high school, direct its 
social life, and supervise instruction. Much observation and inquiiT 
lead to the conclusion that supervision by principals is done lees 
regularly and less well than are the other duties — partly because 
its results are less immediately obvious but chiefly because it is 
((lifficult, requiring professional skill and arduous application. Teach- 
(tT», experienced as well as inexperienced, need the guidance and 
stimulus which come from a supervision that will urge each one 
to formulate or to accept statements of purpose for his subject that 
are specific, definite, and worthy, that will insist on such purposes 
being sought in each recitation unit, and that will show by measure- 
ments the results of such purposeful instruction. It is reasonable 
Ito expect a principal to give the major part of his time and effort 
(to the improvement of teachers in service. 

Third, hif seeing that specific, definite, and loorthy jmrposes are 
proposed hy pupils or else cmnprehended, approved, and adopted ty 
them as their own. This means that pupils should be prepared to 
do better what they will be constantly be called on in actual life to 
do — find problems and devise means of effectively solving them. No- 
where except in the classroom or in the lowest grades of employment 
are human beings regularly told exactly what to do, furnished all the 
necessary data and only those, and expected to find their satisfaction 
m the approval of a taskmaster. It is difficult to see how we may 
expect pupils to develop initiation and independence unless they are 
trained to propose problems or, after comprehending, to approve 
those that are given them and then intelligently to devise means of 
economical solution. With such a plan of work, we should go a 
long way toward ridding the schools of the wasteful and all too 
common spirit of "getting-by." 



LIBRARIES 



(ISO) 



^ 



(140) 



]. THE LIBRARY IN THE SECONJJARY SCHOOL 



(a). PARKE SCHOCH, Principal, West Philadelphia GirW High 

School 



The problem of the libraiy in the secondary scliool is two-fold :- 

1. How to get the library. 

2. How to use it. 



1. The need of a well equipped librarA^ in the modern secondary 
.school is so obvions, at least to school men, that argument in its 
interest may be omitted. p]mpliasis upon this need, however, should 
be stressed by the superintendents of sdiools upon school boards so 
tliat they would make provision 

(a) For a library conveniently located in evei-;y' high school 
building erected. 

(b) The necessary amount of money in the annual budget for 
the purchase of books to keep the library up to date and 
for the expense of administration. 

While it is true that in all high school buildini;s of recent con- 
struction library rooms are provided, it is only in rare instances 
that any provision has been made for stocking the library with 
books and for setting aside ample amounts of money to make the 
books available to the students in proper administration. 

School boards too generally regard the expenditure of public funds 
for these purposes as unnecessary, pointing to the public libraries 
as meeting all reasonable library needs of the conmiunity. High 
school principals and faculties know, only too well, that these public 
institutions do not at present serve the library needs of the school; 
first, because they are generally, in large cities especially, too remote 
from the school buildings to make them readily accessible; and 
second, because at present there is little or no co-ordination between 
public library systems and public school system*. That this co- 
ordination should be made is generally admitted, and if properly 
made would do jnuch to solve the library problem in th" secondary 
school, especially that phase of it that has to do witli Ihf purchase 
and distribution of books necessary to an appreciation of literature. 
In other words, books of a general literary value miglit very easily 
be furnished by public library systems to the libraries of the high 
schools, while the school boards could properly exi)end public funds 
for the necessary standard reference books and books for collateral 
reading. 

(141) 



142 

When the superintendents of the state assume an aggressive atti- 
tude on this library question, school boards will likely respond by 
the provision of ample funds for the creation and maintenance of 
library facilities in the high schools. 

2. Many schools today have libraries of ample proportions, but | 
which do not function as they should in the education of the students 
through lack of a proper administrative agency. Most of us high 
school principals are obliged to limp along with teacher attendants 
in the library. This is not satisfactory for two reasons^-first, the 
teachers of English or history who usually share this responsibility, 
are rarely trained in librai'y technique, and second, because the 
changing personnel in library attendance of this kind results in a 
most unsystematic care and distribution of the books. 

Very few, if any, teacher-attended libraries are catalogued, and 
hence are of comparatively small service to 'faculty and students. 
What is needed, of course, is a college educated, technically trained 
librarian, whose sole duty it is to see that the high school library 
is stocked with all the books needed, both of a literary and reference 
character, to serve the needs of the high school, and to administer 
such a library so that it is made readily accessible to teachers and 
pupils at all times. Such librarian should be chosen with the same 
care as is every other member of the school organization, and she 
should, of course, rank with the department heads of the high schools. 
Like them, too, she should be a teacher, and one of her duties as 
librarian should be to conduct classes in those phases of library 
technique that every person using the library should understand, 
such as a ready use of the library catalogue, how to use the various 
indexes to general literature and to reference sources, how to read 
and interpret publishers' catalogues, etc. 

There seems to be little or no established librai-y practice in the 
State of Pennsylvania ; no settled policy appears to have been defined, 
and therefore none is followed. The State Education Department 
has an opportunity here, among its many opportunities, to do- a real 
service to the schools of the State in establishing standards of high 
school library equipment, organization, and administration, and in 
providing inspectors to assure the maintenance of such standards. 
This is the recommendation we would lay before the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction. 



143 

(b.) THE PROBLEM OF THE LIBKAKY: IX THE PUBLIC 

SCHOOL 



ALICE EATON, Harrishurg Public Library 



Right inter-relation and cooperation between schools and libraries 
is of the utmost importance in the educational plans of a community. 
That this relation might become a fact in Harrisburg, the best possible 
service to schools, consistent with our resources, was established 
as soon as possible after the opening of the Harrisburg I^iiblic 
Library to the public, January 1st, 1914. 

The service has included reference work for debates, essays, and 
class work for the upper schools, with special tables assigned for 
reserved books and periodicals ; supplementary reading lists prepared 
and kept on file; instruction in the use of the library, in knowledge 
of reference books and of children's literature in the training school 
for teachers; story-hours in the lower schools and special schools; 
instruction in the use of the library and best reference books in the 
English classes of the Central and Technical High Schools; and 
circulating libraries placed in the school buildings. Twenty-one 
library collections are in the schools for the year 1919-1920. 

Story-hours are conducted in the library, with the view of leading 
the children to enjoyment of the best in literature, history, and 
science. Illustrated nature talks are given, using the slides from the 
State Educational Museum, and occasional picture story-hours with 
music have added variety. Last spring a simple dramatic pageant 
was presented, illustrating the Legends of Robin Hood. 

Conferences are held with the school authorities as often as pos- 
sible, but responsibility for the work rests with the library. It is 
our desire to extend this service to the county, under the county 
unit system, which may be developed on the lines of the library 
systems of larger cities. 



2. THE PROBLEM OF THE LIBRARY IN THE RURAL 

SCHOOLS 



ORTON LOWE, Asst. Superintendent of Schools, A,llegheny Cnu/nty 



1. The child's education must run in three channels: 1 — acquiring 
the tools of literacy, 2 — working with the hands skillfully, 8 — reading 
books in spare time. The problem of the library in the rural school 
is primarily one of creating a taste for reading and offering guidance 
in reading, and inducing a pupil to buy and read books of his own. 
If the problem of reading is solved in the elementary school its solu- 
tion in the hijgh school will be easy. 



144 

2. Conditions in tlie one-room school and the village and partially 
consolidated township school are in disorder as far as children's 
books and reading are concerned. As these types of schools may exist 
for some time to come the condition must be met and remedied. 

3. The equipment and use of a library in rural schools need to be 
made mandatory. Standard lists of books and plans adaptable to 
local conditions should be drawn up. 

4. These libraries need to be administered by the Department of 
Public Instruction through a county librarian and a county organ- 
ization in connection with the County Superintendent of Schools' 
office. But the support for the library needs to be local as is that 
for any other kind of school supplies and equipment. The county 
administrator needs to be a trained librarian. 

5. Libraries will not justify themselves in rural schools unless the 
teacher of the room knows children's books aiid the tastes of chil- 
dren in reading. For this reason all normal schools should give 
required courses for the year in children's books and their proper 
use. This should be done at the summer sessions, from now on. 

6. The present public library equipment in all parts of the state, 
together with their excellent staff of trained librarians in the use 
of children's books, should be asked to cooperate with the Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction in carrying out any plan thnt might be 
inaugurated. The librarians know the question of children's reading 
and the teachers as a rule do not. 



EXTENDING THE INFLUENCE OF THE LJBKAKV OVER 
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTP^M 



ADA F. LIVERIGHT, Librarian, Phi faciei jJhi a Board of Education 



Most of us will agree I think Avith the major conclusion of the 
Cleveland Survey on the Public Library and the Public School that 
"iw their relations to each other both schools and libraries should 
subordinate every other consideration to the single aim of implanting 
in every child an invincible love for reading." 

How far short of that ideal we have fallen was strikingly mani- 
fested last year during the influenza epidemic, when the dark and 
depressing atmosphere was illuminated by remarks of this character 
lieard daily on the trolley: — ''Gee ain't it enough to give you the 
willies? Not a single thing to do — not a movie show open in this 
town — not a dance hall running — nothing to do but sleep." And these 
comments of stenographers and clerks going to their jobs probably 
represented the attitude of thousands of other workers and employers 
as well. 



145 

But there is another side to the question of "an invincible love 
for reading" which has been expressed by our former School Super- 
intendent, Dr. Brumbaugh, when he said "The free use of libraries 
midirected is a pernicious practice. It is far better to have the 
teachers select and restrict the reading of the pupils. Many a com- 
plaint of poor work is due to the fact that the mental energy of the 
pupils is appropriated to reading books of no value in his educational 
progress, leaving him dull and listless for the specific work of the 
schools." This u/nfortunate condition to which attention has been 
directed by other educators, is due primarily to the fact that the 
library and the scJiool are tiot more closely coordinated, that Pux) 
public institutions arc working side by side Kith a common aim yet 
unfamiliar with the purposes and methods of each other. 

The organic relation between the public library and the public 
school has been a matter of debate for many years. The librarian is 
inclined to believe that although the public library might well be a 
part of the educational system, it should be conducted separately for 
administrative reasons. The teacher is inclined to be perfectly in- 
diflferent to the management of the library and in too many cases 
ignorant of its value and need in her work. This may be our fault — 
although we are always ready to be of service, we do not suflBciently 
advertise that fact. We still preserve some vestigial remains of the 
librarian of the Middle Ages. We become so absorbed in our work 
that we fail to take the necessai-y time to meet and mingle with the 
teachers. The old adage that the librarian who reads is lost should 
be accepted with at least one reservation, or shall I say clarifying 
interpretation, and that in favor of school curricula. / should say 
that familiarity with the local school curricula is necessarij to every 
librarian uho hopes to do successful work tvith the schools. 

Before discussing briefly through what agencies the library stiould 
l;econie an iutogral ])art of tho school system, may I suggest that 
failing the ideal of placing all educational agencies — the schools, the 
libraries, the museum, and the recreation centers, under one central 
organization (with proper subdivisions, of course) — that the Cleve- 
land plan which provides for a Library Board consisting of seven 
members elected by tlie Board of Education is worth consideration 
inasmuch as the Keport of the Survey Committee says: "1st — That 
the public library has always been closely connected with the public 
school. 2d — That the public library occupies a more important 
position among the civic activities, and plays a more influential part 
in the home life of the city of Cleveland than it does in any other 
large American city." (New York City?) 



10 



146 

In Philadelphia' there are the friendliest relations between the 
library and the school which are under separate management, but 
the relation is merely incidental — the library is not accepted as be- 
longing to the school and its work, and until the library becomes 
an integral part of the school system there wiU always be schools, 
especially those at a distance from a branch library, where both 
teachers and pupils are deprived of its cultural and practical ad- 
vantages. 

In addition to the Cleveland plan, I should like to see the Superin- 
tendent of Schools on the library hoard, the Librarian of the Public 
Library on the Superintendent's Council and librarians attending 
teachers' meetings. 

To return to the means of incorporating the library as an integral 
I>art of the school system — it should be done. 

First — Through school libraries, that is branch libraries in school 
buildings. These collections ranging from 1000 to 5000 volumes 
should be selected primarily for the children, although they may in- 
clude books for the teachers, for those adults in the neighborhood 
who cannot go to the regular library, and for pupils of the evening 
schools. And may I touch here upon the wonderful field for library 
work in the evening schools? '"In evening schools where there is 
not a regular school library, an assistant from the public library 
system might visit and explain tvhat the library can do for the pupils; 
she might distribute application cards and book lists; and in the 
evening schools where there is a large foreign element there might 
be a travelling library of carefully selected books in simple English, 
as loell as books for the elders in the language of the home." (An 
assistant who knows the language of the neighborhood can do much 
to make the library popular.) In Cleveland of the night school pupils 
registered in 1913-14 who had borrowed books prepared for foreigners 
learning the English language, or books in the different native lan- 
guages, about 24 percent continued to draw books in the follomug 
year and one-half of their reading was English, indicating that prog- 
ress had really been made in acquiring the English language. 
( Americanization. ) 

The experiment kr n as the Gary system or the modified Gary 
system, which the pait-time problem is forcing us to adopt, should 
work out favorably for school libraries in elementary schools. Under 
this plan no room is ever unused : one room is specially equipped 
and set aside for auditorium work, another for art, another for gym- 
nastics and so on. Special teachers for special subjects are also 
being employed the same as in higher schools. In this scheme a room 
equipped as a library would be used as a class room rotating groups 
and the use of the library would form part of the regular class work. 



147 

with special teaciieis to assist ttie pupils, it is uatural to suppose 
that special teachers will be better able to direct the pupils iu sup- 
piemeutary readiug uloug their special liues of work, just as they are 
better equipped to teach one or two subjects thau to teach lessons 
covering the entire course of study. 

Another means of intiuenciug children's reading is through class- 
room libraries of from 20 to 50 books sent at the request of the teacher 
and selected from a central school library collection kept at the main 
library. A far better selection and one which would connect directly 
with the school work could be made by principal and librarian jointly. 
Take for example our course of study in Civics for tifth grade, where 
a survey of occupations is made. Practically all teachers know that 
the best English classics are to be found at the public library, but 
they are entirely ignorant of the wealth of material written on the 
various trades and professions both from the technical and the voca- 
tional guidance standpoint. So because of the failure of teacher 
and librarian to pool their information, such a specialized collection 
as the classroom library is often left to the individual taste of a 
library official or ofttimes to the chance of "leftovers." The conclu- 
sion of the Cleveland Survey are that "since the responsibility for 
the classroom collections rest upon the individual teacher already 
heavily taxed, we must consider classroom libraries as less satis- 
factory than either general school libraries or branch libraries." 
Personally, I think the benefits to the children of having their reading 
directed by one whose influence is second only to that of the home 
and by one who knows their individual needs are so great that every 
effort should be made to secure them. 

The high school library in charge of a trained librarian we take 
as a matter of course, and a special library room is always planned 
in the specifications for a new high school building. All authorities 
recommend that the high school book collections be expanded so as 
to include works of inspiration and recreation as well as those of 
information. In Cleveland, high school libraries are conducted on a 
co-operative basis by the Board of Education and the Library Board. 
The high school libraries of Newark, Passaic, and Portland, Oregon, 
are branches of the public librar5^ In Kansas City where school and 
library are under joint control, the branch libraries in high schools 
have been so successful that all new grade buildings are to have 
library rooms. (Mrs. Powell). 

Quite as important, if indeed not more important than the Senior 
high school library is a well-equipped library, in charge of a trained 
librarian, in the Junior high school. A great majority of children 
never reach the Senior high school. Moreover the most impression- 
able years of youth, the years when right reading habits can be 
established are spent in the Junior high school. 



148 

It goes without «a^iug that iu order that pupils may be able to 
use a library with iutelligeuce, instruction in the use of books should 
be given throughout the entire period oi" school life. Beginning in 
the primary grades with little informal talks on keeping books clean, 
free from dog ears, etc. (Philadelphia Course in Civics) instruction 
may advance to the standards recommended by the American Library 
Association and the National Education Association. 

lirietiy, the report of 1015 on Library \\()rk in normal schools recom- 
mends tliat 25 lessons of not less than 45 minutes be devoted to 
reference work, the same to children's literature, and that an elective 
course on technical subjects be provided for teacher librarians. Mrs. 
Powell in her illuminating book on The Children's Library states that 
only three normal schools in the country give all these recommended 
courses. 

Undoubtedly the library influence over an entire school system 
radiates from the Normal school. Here our teachers are trained. 
With them lies the future of the child. They are trained not only 
to find readily and to use intelligently the necessary material for 
their classroom work, but they are given a practical knowledge of 
children's books, and sufficient instruction in the technical side of 
library work to enable them to administer their classroom libraries. 

The Philadelphia Normal School devotes in the freshman year 20 
periods to a course of instruction in the use of general and special 
reference works and the arrangements of books in. a library. This 
work is under the capable direction of Miss Gendell, the librarian, 
who is trained as a teacher as well as a librarian. No home work is 
required of the students, so a portion of the 20 periods is spent in 
the preparation of their lessons. During the Junior year twenty 
lessons on children's literature are given by the English department, 
while the Kindergarten department for one year and a half gives one 
lesson a week on Stories and Story telling. (Miss Adair.) 

To further extend the influence of the library over the public 
school system, I want to urge that College Departments of Education 
include courses in School Library Organization and Administration ; 
Child psychology as the basis for book selection; Children's litera- 
ture (and many more high sounding but plainly needed courses I 
could name). Teachers are urged to take college work. Many en- 
gaged in the delectable pursuit of enough college credits to capture 
a degree devote their time to study which is neither a pleasure to 
themselves nor a benefit to their pupils. How much better were the 
same time expended in the truly interesting and at the same time 
practical studies I have named. 



149 

I have said nothing about the Pedagogical Library maintained by 
the Philadelphia Board of Education, because I should like you to 
think me modest. But I am going to be entirely frank and tell you 
that 1 think it could be made a much more useful organization were 
it under the joint control of the Board of Education and the Free 
Library system. 

I should be glad to tell j'ou about its reference work for the Super- 
intendent's department and for the school system at large; of its truly 
Hue collection of books and ])amphlets on Education and related 
subjects; of its unique library of lantern slides. But this is not 
necessary as Ave hope to have you visit us during the approaching 
sessions of the Pennsylvania State Educational Association whe7i 
you will find us busy and cheerful in spite of inadequate accommoda- 
tions and old and dingy surroundings. 



m 



